Introduction
In this part of the course we move into the 20th century. There will be a distinct shift away from the Euro-centric focus in the previous parts and less emphasis on painting as a mode of artistic expression.
In this part of the course we move into the 20th century. There will be a distinct shift away from the Euro-centric focus in the previous parts and less emphasis on painting as a mode of artistic expression.
From the Handbook
Into the 20th Century
Many artist started looking back to what would be regarded 'primitive' cultures, like Picasso who was inspired by African sculpture, Kirchner and Matisse who made reference to Oceanic art, Epstein who was inspired by Cycladic art. There was also a fascination with Romanian, Russian and Bavarian folk art. Artists became more interested in depicting the world in in alternate reality. Many critics have attributed the diversity and innovation of the decade before the First World War to political and social tensions and to new inventions such as the aeroplane and the motor car. \
The Futurists, in particular, combined a love affair with the speed and dynamism of the machine with a sometimes more insightful recognition of its effect on modern life. The declamatory machine aesthetic of the Futurists influenced the socialist artist Fernand Léger and the British Vorticist group. During the First World War, Percy Wyndham Lewis, William Roberts, brothers Paul and John Nash and C.R.W. Nevinson discovered in the trenches the dynamic geometry of the machine-made world that they had envisaged. At the same time they found in the enforced conformity of army life the supreme expression of the depersonalisation that Marx and William Morris had identified as characteristic of the machine age.
Many artist started looking back to what would be regarded 'primitive' cultures, like Picasso who was inspired by African sculpture, Kirchner and Matisse who made reference to Oceanic art, Epstein who was inspired by Cycladic art. There was also a fascination with Romanian, Russian and Bavarian folk art. Artists became more interested in depicting the world in in alternate reality. Many critics have attributed the diversity and innovation of the decade before the First World War to political and social tensions and to new inventions such as the aeroplane and the motor car. \
The Futurists, in particular, combined a love affair with the speed and dynamism of the machine with a sometimes more insightful recognition of its effect on modern life. The declamatory machine aesthetic of the Futurists influenced the socialist artist Fernand Léger and the British Vorticist group. During the First World War, Percy Wyndham Lewis, William Roberts, brothers Paul and John Nash and C.R.W. Nevinson discovered in the trenches the dynamic geometry of the machine-made world that they had envisaged. At the same time they found in the enforced conformity of army life the supreme expression of the depersonalisation that Marx and William Morris had identified as characteristic of the machine age.
Art between the wars
Although it didn’t witness the same formal innovations as the first decade of the twentieth century, the period between the wars was one of intense political and artistic debate. The opposing ideologies of left and right competed against the background of the stock market crash and the economic depression. Charles Harrison and Paul Wood argue that one side believed that the capitalist system had been responsible for the war and that it needed to be swept away, while the other thought that the war represented the breakdown of traditional values of which the avant-garde had itself been symptomatic. For conservative artists the relief at the end of hostilities was accompanied by a ‘call to order’.
Vorticism
The vorticists were a British avant-garde group formed in London in 1914 with the aim of creating art that expressed the dynamism of the modern world
Although it didn’t witness the same formal innovations as the first decade of the twentieth century, the period between the wars was one of intense political and artistic debate. The opposing ideologies of left and right competed against the background of the stock market crash and the economic depression. Charles Harrison and Paul Wood argue that one side believed that the capitalist system had been responsible for the war and that it needed to be swept away, while the other thought that the war represented the breakdown of traditional values of which the avant-garde had itself been symptomatic. For conservative artists the relief at the end of hostilities was accompanied by a ‘call to order’.
Vorticism
The vorticists were a British avant-garde group formed in London in 1914 with the aim of creating art that expressed the dynamism of the modern world
Progressive artists were split between those who championed the rationalism of geometrical abstraction and those, like Diego Rivera in Mexico, who adopted the more accessible language of social realism. A third group, the Surrealists, who had early links with the Communist Party, believed its purpose was to undermine the complacency of bourgeois society by revealing the power of the unconscious mind. Their use of automatic drawing, chance and dream imagery echoed a wider tendency towards a use of non-fine art skills and less autobiographical ways of making. In the Surrealists’ case this included the collaborative game of the ‘exquisite corpse’ and Ernst’s use of frottage and collage.
Frottage
The technique or process of taking a rubbing from an uneven surface to form the basis of a work of art.
Frottage
The technique or process of taking a rubbing from an uneven surface to form the basis of a work of art.
In Russia the revolution inspired a number of artists to follow what Malevich had called ‘the supremacy of the
idea over matter, over the chaos of nature’. Their equation of the clarity of geometrical form with socially responsible behaviour took on an ethical dimension, which receiveda brief acceptance from the authorities before it was replaced by a more conservative social realism. Russian Constructivism It was started by a group of advanced Russian artist just as the Bolsheviks came to power during the Revolution of 1917, who supported the revolution's goals. It replaced composition with construction, an analytical approach to modern materials. |
Die Stijl Group
De Stijl movement embraced an abstract, pared-down aesthetic centered in basic visual elements such as geometric forms and primary colors. Led by the painters Theo van Doesburg and Piet Mondrian. They used primary colours and geometric forms in a lyrical, asymmetrical way that belied the cold impersonal logic of a political programme.
De Stijl movement embraced an abstract, pared-down aesthetic centered in basic visual elements such as geometric forms and primary colors. Led by the painters Theo van Doesburg and Piet Mondrian. They used primary colours and geometric forms in a lyrical, asymmetrical way that belied the cold impersonal logic of a political programme.
At the Bauhaus the ultimate goal was to train students to work collectively and to create buildings and purpose-built furniture with the functional logic of mass-produced items. It was founded with the idea of creating a "total" work of art in which all arts, including architecture.
In America, Sullivan’s famous dictum ‘Form follows function’ is well-known. Yet almost as important as functionalism was the way in which architects made a fetish of modern building methods. The hallmarks of the international style included a use of simple geometric shapes, flat roofs, continuous fenestration and interiors uninterrupted by load-bearing walls. |
In sculpture sculpture artists like Julio González and David Smith used skills that they had learned from commercial art or in an industrial context to make open-form sculptures which eschewed traditional processes such as carving or casting. Constantin Brancusi, and at times Barbara Hepworth and Henry Moore, had a similar interest in streamlined surfaces and in imitating the appearance of industrially manufactured forms. They combined Constructivist principles and jewel-like surfaces with biomorphic forms and figurative references to the mother and child. In some ways a concern for a common humanity of feelings and emotions and for the cohesive force of nature had a similar political ambition to the geometric abstraction which seemed its antithesis.
In contrast, other Surrealists were concerned with more private and disjunctive forms of art. Magritte’s Le Viol conflated the traditions of portraiture and the nude in an oxymoronic way that would be crucial for later artists’ exploration of language and meaning. Even more radical was Frida Kahlo and other surrealist women artists’ use of their own personal histories and bodies. These anticipated later feminist preoccupations with image and identity. Perhaps the most seminal works of all were the pieces that Marcel Duchamp produced during the First World War itself. His presentation of a shop-bought urinal with the title Fountain looked forward to conceptualism. It also questioned the role of the artist as creator.
Conceptualism is a philosophical theory that explains universality of particulars as conceptualized frameworks situated within the thinking mind.
Conceptualism is a philosophical theory that explains universality of particulars as conceptualized frameworks situated within the thinking mind.
In Germany the post-Dada collage artists John Heartfield and Hannah Höch used found photographs in ways similar to Max Ernst to expose the nature of society through the manner of the dominant mode in which it represented itself. Their implicit allusions to Marxist thought seem a world away from Man Ray’s production of camera-less photographs of Surrealist subjects. Yet all of the above share a fascination with the way in which the medium chosen to make an image helps to define its meaning.
From Europa to America
The period after the Second World War was marked by a shift in cultural production as well as of political and economic power from Europe to America. Many of the best known Surrealist artists had already fled to New York before 1945. The first great movement to emerge there, Abstract Expressionism, combined the Surrealists’ interest in the use of chance and of automatic processes with references to the wide open spaces of the American landscape and the heroic scale of the Mexican muralists of the thirties. The Surrealists’ focus on Freud as the primary interpreter of the unconscious was replaced by a new interest in Carl Jung. Jung was a Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist who founded analytic psychology. He proposed and developed the concepts of the extraverted and the introverted personality, archetypes, and the collective unconscious.
American Abstract Expressionism was largely an extension of the formal concerns that Modernism had already explored. This is true of its concern for the relationship between image and background and for the flatness and parameters of the canvas. What was different was the heroic scale of the works, which in part reflected the rise of new corporate and institutional purchasers. To some their rhetoric now seems to reflect the arrogance of America’s perceived importance after the war. At the same time their fetishizing of the artist’s personal handling of paint recalls the self-obsession of European Romanticism. Artists like Mark Rothko, Barnett Newman, Jackson Pollock, Clifford Still and Georgia O’Keefe’s had in common their emphasis on the individuality of the artist’s vision. This links them to the angst-ridden works of contemporary European artists. Institutions like the Arts Council and the British Council went a long way at supporting artists and their idealistic ambitions.
From Europa to America
The period after the Second World War was marked by a shift in cultural production as well as of political and economic power from Europe to America. Many of the best known Surrealist artists had already fled to New York before 1945. The first great movement to emerge there, Abstract Expressionism, combined the Surrealists’ interest in the use of chance and of automatic processes with references to the wide open spaces of the American landscape and the heroic scale of the Mexican muralists of the thirties. The Surrealists’ focus on Freud as the primary interpreter of the unconscious was replaced by a new interest in Carl Jung. Jung was a Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist who founded analytic psychology. He proposed and developed the concepts of the extraverted and the introverted personality, archetypes, and the collective unconscious.
American Abstract Expressionism was largely an extension of the formal concerns that Modernism had already explored. This is true of its concern for the relationship between image and background and for the flatness and parameters of the canvas. What was different was the heroic scale of the works, which in part reflected the rise of new corporate and institutional purchasers. To some their rhetoric now seems to reflect the arrogance of America’s perceived importance after the war. At the same time their fetishizing of the artist’s personal handling of paint recalls the self-obsession of European Romanticism. Artists like Mark Rothko, Barnett Newman, Jackson Pollock, Clifford Still and Georgia O’Keefe’s had in common their emphasis on the individuality of the artist’s vision. This links them to the angst-ridden works of contemporary European artists. Institutions like the Arts Council and the British Council went a long way at supporting artists and their idealistic ambitions.
In the early 50s the mod got darker with the influnece of the Holocaust, Cold War and Existentialism, which is a philosophical theory or approach which emphasizes the existence of the individual person as a free and responsible agent determining their own development through acts of the will. Artworks seemed to take a pessimistic turn.
By the mid 50s in America, consumerism was leading the way, influencing artists like Robert Rauschenberg, seen in his work incorporating his bed into a painting or his collaging of diverse images – from found photographs of Marilyn Monroe and President Kennedy to abstract shapes and colours – questioned the relationship between image and meaning and of their reference to the real world. Other artist making use of modern appropriation was Richard Hamilton, Peter Blake and David Hockney and Andy Warhol. A common factor in the work of these so-called Pop artists was the extent to which they used such allusions overtly and as a factor in determining the formal properties of their work.
Appropriation
This refers to the practice of artists using pre-existing objects or images in their art with little transformation of the original.
By the mid 50s in America, consumerism was leading the way, influencing artists like Robert Rauschenberg, seen in his work incorporating his bed into a painting or his collaging of diverse images – from found photographs of Marilyn Monroe and President Kennedy to abstract shapes and colours – questioned the relationship between image and meaning and of their reference to the real world. Other artist making use of modern appropriation was Richard Hamilton, Peter Blake and David Hockney and Andy Warhol. A common factor in the work of these so-called Pop artists was the extent to which they used such allusions overtly and as a factor in determining the formal properties of their work.
Appropriation
This refers to the practice of artists using pre-existing objects or images in their art with little transformation of the original.
Minimalist artists used similar strategies to evade the market forces of the gallery system and to change the relationship between the artist and the viewer. For example, Robert Morris, Carl Andre and Donald Judd used simple geometric shapes, industrial materials and pre-determined ways of making work to minimise their personal handwriting. Where their sculptures differed from the Constructivists was in their presentation of a number of isolated forms. These were juxtaposed in ways that confounded the ability of viewers to see them at one time or to determine the viewpoint that was most
appropriate.
appropriate.
Artists continued to push the boundaries of size and the relationship of artist to gallery to art. Some even evaded the gallery to explore the relationship with consumerism and industry by creating onsite works. By the end of the 1970s the scale and seriousness of such works was beginning to seem asold-fashioned as the Abstract Expressionist paintings that had preceded them. Indeed, rather than undermining the art market, they appeared complicit with the top-down structures that it embodied. The public was particularly hostile to modern architecture, which most people experienced through a badly conceived or badly executed version of grand designs. The leap from the purity of the modernist style to the theatrical, fairground architecture of postmodernism suggests comparisons with the stylistic break from Renaissance forms to the exuberance of the Baroque. The ten-year battle that the users of a public square in New York fought with the commissioners of a 100m sculpture by Richard Serra indicates that more serious works and a more traditional relationship between artist and viewer persisted. Yet soon its ramifications were to be apparent throughout the arts.
From Cold War to 9/11
The last two decades of the twentieth century were a time of considerable political upheaval.
A sense of the complex and intangible nature of modern life and of its relationship to what Barthes called ‘a floating chain of signifieds’ can also be seen in the expressionist paintings, photography and sculpture that began to appear in the late 1970s, like those of Francesco Clemente, Anselm Kiefer and Joseph Beuys.
From Cold War to 9/11
The last two decades of the twentieth century were a time of considerable political upheaval.
- By the end of the 1970s, the aftermath of the oil crisis, the Vietnam War and Watergate had shaken belief in the superiority of the American way of life.
- In the late 1980s the fall of the Berlin Wall and the events in Tiananmen Square ushered in a new era in the former Soviet Union and China, soon to be followed by the rise of new economic powers in Asia, South America and the Middle East.
- The west lurched from a manufacturing to a service economy in which financial products formed a large sector.
- The development of the internet and of communications accelerated these changes.
- As fewer people stayed in the same job, the same place or even the same relationship, notions of class and identity became more fluid.
- The fear of AIDS was followed by an anxiety about the environment. The faith in progress that had been the bedrock of modernism diminished. This was mirrored by a decline in the perceived importance of the avant-garde and of its contribution to political change.
- By the 1970s there was also an emergence of the female voice with female artists using their bodies to confront male attitudes. Artist were also challenging other traditions and mindsets, like racism and marriage.
A sense of the complex and intangible nature of modern life and of its relationship to what Barthes called ‘a floating chain of signifieds’ can also be seen in the expressionist paintings, photography and sculpture that began to appear in the late 1970s, like those of Francesco Clemente, Anselm Kiefer and Joseph Beuys.
By the end of the 1990s the arrival of digital techniques was calling into question the nature of the photograph as a record of the visible world. The emergence of non-western artists on the world’s art markets echoed other aspects of globalisation. Among them were Huang Yong Ping from China, Clifford Possum from Australia and Ilya Kabakov from Russia. One of the most important artists to use the new medium of video was the Korean artist, Nam June Paik. From the 1970s onwards he exhibited TVs with statues of the Buddha or showed footage of Asian TV shows based on American models to suggest the increasing babel of global culture. By the end of the century Bill Viola was using video to bring together ideas from Christian mysticism and Tantric Buddhism.
The destruction of the World Trade Center and the beginning of the so-called ‘war on terror’ introduced even darker narratives. There was an ongoing focus of the the artist's impact on the art world as they explored and satirised matters of culture, consumption, iconoclasm and tradition. The development of new technologies also meant increasingly more complex narratives to art pieces, like computers and social media. While it is clearly impossible to find a single work of art that is representative of the new century, it is interesting to note that A World History of Art chose Cao Fei’s iMirror of 2007 as its last image.
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Introduction
The 1900s "was a decade in which people still looked forward to a world in which industry and commerce, science and medicine, plus the application of social justice, could bring about a better life for all" (Selz, 1981:58). In Europe there was still a demand for independence, while capitalism meant growing consumer markets and a rise in the middle class. America was growing as the land of opportunity with immigrants flooding the shores in search for a better life. Cities continued to grow with the escalation of industrial produciton and became a focal point of wealth and deprivation (Copplestone, 1983). This was an age of geniuses, where developments in science and psychology would have a significant impact on how we viewed the world. People like Albert Einstein, Marie Curie, Gertrude Stein and Ludwig Kirchner to name but a few.
At the start of the 20th century there was a revolt against naturalism as artist became more daring and adventurous, fueled by the radical innovations of the time. The growth of technology and communication meant a rapid procession of styles in 19th century tendencies like subjectivism and objectivism were being explored ever more self-consciously. It represents the birth of Modernism, a search for representing the world in new ways and breaking down conventions and past preconceptions. It is not one simple movement, but a succession of artistic movements. For artists this meant facing the dilemma of choosing between pure form or inner truth.
Subjectivism
This is based around the artists emotional/ psychological state and experiences, making it self-critical.
Objectivism
"Art is a selective re-creation of reality according to an artist's metaphysical value judgments ... man's fundamental view of himself and of existence" (Thomas, 2010)
Philosophical innovations continued to play a great role in artists interpretation of the world. Like the writings of Henri Bergson, Benedetto Croce and most notably Sigmund Freud.
Henri Bergson
He was a French Philosopher in metaphysics. In his book An Introduction to Metaphysics he writes that an object can be known absolutely (through analysis) and relatively (through intuition). This would have lead to artist think more symbolically and iconically about art.
Benedetto Croce
He was an Italian idealist philosopher, historian and politician, who wrote on numerous topics, including philosophy, history, historiography and aesthetics. In one of his article's on aesthetics published in 1929, he writes that "that art embodies not beauty but “expression,” or the coherent movement of the will" (Britannica, 2017). One can see how this philosophy would encourage artists to create works based on their emotions.
Sigmund Freud
He was an Austrian neurologist best known for developing the theories and techniques of psychoanalysis. He focused on the instinctual nature of humans. That the key to understanding humans was not rational, but rather based on their subconscious urges, emotions and sensations. This had a great impact on art, as artist looked for inspiration from more primitive cultures, resulting in far more spontaneous and energetic artistic expressions.
These new discoveries and mindsets had a profound impact on religion as it became a casualty of progress. Science and materialism were the new gods of the era as great minds were making us question our thoughts on reality. Arts continued to explore ideas of spirituality, but politics, science and culture took a front seat. This meant the this century is one of the most difficult to define, as it was in a continuous age of flux.
A New Way of Looking
At the turn of the 20th century in Europe and America the French Fin de siècle still dominated artistic standards, calling for sophistication, fashion and extreme aestheticism. A group of painters inspired by the works of Van Gogh, Gauguin and Cezanne developed a new style of vibrant colours use, rough handling and unnatural distortions. They were called the Fauves, meaning 'wild beasts'. "In Fauvism we sense a delight in raw sensation, a kind of calculated barbarity that anticipates the earthy dynamism" (Copplestone, 1983:330). This name may have been inspired by the painting The Hungry Lion Throws Itself on the Antelope by Henri Rousseau. "At the Salon, the painting hung near works by artists that included Henri Matisse and André Derain, and may have prompted one keen-eyed critic to refer to the young painters as 'Fauves' or 'Wild Beasts'." (The Art Story, 2017)
The 1900s "was a decade in which people still looked forward to a world in which industry and commerce, science and medicine, plus the application of social justice, could bring about a better life for all" (Selz, 1981:58). In Europe there was still a demand for independence, while capitalism meant growing consumer markets and a rise in the middle class. America was growing as the land of opportunity with immigrants flooding the shores in search for a better life. Cities continued to grow with the escalation of industrial produciton and became a focal point of wealth and deprivation (Copplestone, 1983). This was an age of geniuses, where developments in science and psychology would have a significant impact on how we viewed the world. People like Albert Einstein, Marie Curie, Gertrude Stein and Ludwig Kirchner to name but a few.
At the start of the 20th century there was a revolt against naturalism as artist became more daring and adventurous, fueled by the radical innovations of the time. The growth of technology and communication meant a rapid procession of styles in 19th century tendencies like subjectivism and objectivism were being explored ever more self-consciously. It represents the birth of Modernism, a search for representing the world in new ways and breaking down conventions and past preconceptions. It is not one simple movement, but a succession of artistic movements. For artists this meant facing the dilemma of choosing between pure form or inner truth.
Subjectivism
This is based around the artists emotional/ psychological state and experiences, making it self-critical.
Objectivism
"Art is a selective re-creation of reality according to an artist's metaphysical value judgments ... man's fundamental view of himself and of existence" (Thomas, 2010)
Philosophical innovations continued to play a great role in artists interpretation of the world. Like the writings of Henri Bergson, Benedetto Croce and most notably Sigmund Freud.
Henri Bergson
He was a French Philosopher in metaphysics. In his book An Introduction to Metaphysics he writes that an object can be known absolutely (through analysis) and relatively (through intuition). This would have lead to artist think more symbolically and iconically about art.
Benedetto Croce
He was an Italian idealist philosopher, historian and politician, who wrote on numerous topics, including philosophy, history, historiography and aesthetics. In one of his article's on aesthetics published in 1929, he writes that "that art embodies not beauty but “expression,” or the coherent movement of the will" (Britannica, 2017). One can see how this philosophy would encourage artists to create works based on their emotions.
Sigmund Freud
He was an Austrian neurologist best known for developing the theories and techniques of psychoanalysis. He focused on the instinctual nature of humans. That the key to understanding humans was not rational, but rather based on their subconscious urges, emotions and sensations. This had a great impact on art, as artist looked for inspiration from more primitive cultures, resulting in far more spontaneous and energetic artistic expressions.
These new discoveries and mindsets had a profound impact on religion as it became a casualty of progress. Science and materialism were the new gods of the era as great minds were making us question our thoughts on reality. Arts continued to explore ideas of spirituality, but politics, science and culture took a front seat. This meant the this century is one of the most difficult to define, as it was in a continuous age of flux.
A New Way of Looking
At the turn of the 20th century in Europe and America the French Fin de siècle still dominated artistic standards, calling for sophistication, fashion and extreme aestheticism. A group of painters inspired by the works of Van Gogh, Gauguin and Cezanne developed a new style of vibrant colours use, rough handling and unnatural distortions. They were called the Fauves, meaning 'wild beasts'. "In Fauvism we sense a delight in raw sensation, a kind of calculated barbarity that anticipates the earthy dynamism" (Copplestone, 1983:330). This name may have been inspired by the painting The Hungry Lion Throws Itself on the Antelope by Henri Rousseau. "At the Salon, the painting hung near works by artists that included Henri Matisse and André Derain, and may have prompted one keen-eyed critic to refer to the young painters as 'Fauves' or 'Wild Beasts'." (The Art Story, 2017)
Henri Rousseau
He was a self taught amateur artist who worked with a naivety and uniqueness that went on to inspire the works many other modern artists, in particular Picasso. His use of imagination and mystery in compositions inspired other to push against the ideals of Realism. His natural ability to combine rhythm and detail into his large canvases is what made his work a creative revelation. His technique is defined in his use of incorrect proportions, one-pointed perspectives, and often unnatural colors. The static depiction of The Hungry Lion gives it both an ancient and modern feel. " |
Henri Matisse
This French painter was regarded as a great colourist. A key figure in Fauvism with some interests in Cubism. His monumental paintings can be described as expressive and decorative. In The Joy of Life Matisse has so dratically simplified form and blocks of colour that have become pure linear lines, making the composition feel as though it is on the same plane. There is a childlike creativity to the composition, as there are no perspective points, lights or shadows. It is inspired by the French ideas of what is idyll, inspired by Poussin and Watteau. |
Andre Derain
He had a fascination with primitive art and simplistic form and experimented with different stylistic idioms. At the start of the century he exhibited with the other Fauvists Henri Matisse and Maurice de Vlaminck. He was later also associated with Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque as an influence in early Cubism. In Turning Road we can see an influence form Gaguin in how Derain has used crisp colour and the lack of shadows, a modern take on a rural landscape. |
The German Expressionists
Die Brücke
Fauvism had its greatest impact in Germany, especially among Die Brücke, that consisted of a group of like minded expressionist painters of which Emil Nolde is the most notable. These artists worked during the pre-First War years and as such they were increasingly concerned with their contemporary psychological situation, showing the world their frustration and resentment of their ways. Gripped with fears about humanity's place in the modern world and its lost feelings of spirituality and authenticity.
Die Brücke
Fauvism had its greatest impact in Germany, especially among Die Brücke, that consisted of a group of like minded expressionist painters of which Emil Nolde is the most notable. These artists worked during the pre-First War years and as such they were increasingly concerned with their contemporary psychological situation, showing the world their frustration and resentment of their ways. Gripped with fears about humanity's place in the modern world and its lost feelings of spirituality and authenticity.
Emil Nolde
His work was deeply religious and intensely emotional. His extreme personal Christian imagery was greatly influenced by primitive African and Oceanic art. His compositions were abstracteda and exaggerated with strong contrasts and vitality. In The Last Supper is less traditional take on previous centuries religious matters. He has not made use of perspective or depth and the colours chosen are warm and vibrant. Christ in the center almost appears to be the light source to the men surrounding him. The figures are depicted roughly with harsher lines representing their facial features, making them appear more emotive. |
Nolde's work was greatly influenced by the writer Frederich Nietzsche. Nietzsche was famous for his criticisms of traditional European morality and religion, as well as modern politics. He sought to expose false consciousness and traditional values by questioning the motives of those involved.
Ernst Ludwig Kirchner
Kirchner rejected academic styles and drew his inspiration from the modern city and human figure. He preferred depicting the figure in motion, showing the vitality of its form and movement. He favored sharp blocks of colours and flat plains. As with the other artists in this movement he drew inspiration from primitive art forms, in particular the Pacific Islands. In Street, Berlin, he explores the life of the City prostitute. There is an angular and geometric approach to his composition which provides a sense of movement and energy, despite its flatness. The vibrant colours and sullen expressions provide a sense of sensuality. The painting is a commentary on German society pre- Wold War 1, as he believed urban individuals were becoming detached from society. |
Der Blaue Reiter
The artists of this movement, like those of Die Brücke, sought to explore our alienation in an ever increasing modernizing world. Additionally they also pursued the more spiritual value of art. Wassily Kandinsky and Franz Marc were at the theoretical center of this group which also included Russian artists and other German immigrants. Colour was one of the biggest elements they chose to use in their exploration of the spiritual, in particular the colour blue. they endeavored to represent an abstract representation of form. Der Blaue Reiter is considered the first movement to explore abstract art by looking at the world in a subjective reality.
The artists of this movement, like those of Die Brücke, sought to explore our alienation in an ever increasing modernizing world. Additionally they also pursued the more spiritual value of art. Wassily Kandinsky and Franz Marc were at the theoretical center of this group which also included Russian artists and other German immigrants. Colour was one of the biggest elements they chose to use in their exploration of the spiritual, in particular the colour blue. they endeavored to represent an abstract representation of form. Der Blaue Reiter is considered the first movement to explore abstract art by looking at the world in a subjective reality.
Wassily Kandinsky
He was a highly educated and cultivated Russian painter who lived in Munich. He abandoned traditional representations in favor of rainbow coulours, dynamic brushwork and nonobjective style. He wanted his audience to engage in his compositions through sight, sound and emotion. He sought to find a spiritual artistic expression free from the external influence of the world. In his earlier paintings he was worried that people would not understand his abstract art, and therefore he included recognizable subject matter or disguised objects. This can be seen in The Blue Mountain, where he has incorporated the mountain and horses. IT shows his depiction of natural forms in unnatural colours. Even though the subject matter is symbolic of the Apocalypse, a potentially frighting biblical experience, his use of bold colours, evoke feelings of hope instead. In his later works his compositions become more daring through his exploration of organic shapes and undulating forms. Composition VII is considered one of his greatest works, with no perspective or spatial relation. The painting captures his belief that sound can be captured in a painting. It gives the audience insight into the artists' mystic mind and makes you feel as though you are watching a dream.
He was a highly educated and cultivated Russian painter who lived in Munich. He abandoned traditional representations in favor of rainbow coulours, dynamic brushwork and nonobjective style. He wanted his audience to engage in his compositions through sight, sound and emotion. He sought to find a spiritual artistic expression free from the external influence of the world. In his earlier paintings he was worried that people would not understand his abstract art, and therefore he included recognizable subject matter or disguised objects. This can be seen in The Blue Mountain, where he has incorporated the mountain and horses. IT shows his depiction of natural forms in unnatural colours. Even though the subject matter is symbolic of the Apocalypse, a potentially frighting biblical experience, his use of bold colours, evoke feelings of hope instead. In his later works his compositions become more daring through his exploration of organic shapes and undulating forms. Composition VII is considered one of his greatest works, with no perspective or spatial relation. The painting captures his belief that sound can be captured in a painting. It gives the audience insight into the artists' mystic mind and makes you feel as though you are watching a dream.
Franz Marc
Along with Kandinsky he explored the idea of symbolic abstraction. He created passionate depictions of animals and nature. He also explored the emotionalism of colour through his depictions to evoke the rhythms of nature. He associated blue with the masculinity, yellow with femininity, and red as being physical or even violent. Fate of the Animals is the vision of annihilation as seen through the eyes of the animals. It also serves as a premonition to the horrors of war. We can see how the colour red here along with the sharp and geometric shapes evoke a feeling of violence. |
Cubism
The term Cubism came about from an art critic commenting on a group of artists who held an exhibition in Paris. It was a means of questioning figuration and drawing away from traditions. It went on to inspire further abstract movements like Orphism and Constructivism. It can be broken down even further into Facest Cubism and Collage Cubism. Facet Cubism This is where everything in the composition is broken into angular facets, whether it be a figure object or background. Unlike the Fauves, the Cubists still explored three-dimensionality by including shadows. Looking at Picasso's Three Women is a perfect example of this. He is using the angular technique to question Classical beauty and form by playing with angles and proportions, but the woman are still shaded with tonal variations so the canvas does not appear flat. |
Pablo Picasso
Pablo was an infant prodigy with a remarkable grasp on colour and a unique ability to create poetry on the canvas, especially looking at his Blue Period. Picasso was greatly inspired the works of Cézanne who "inferred the existence of a type of geometric skeleton beneath he outward flesh of nature" (Copplestone, 1983:332). Cézanne also palyed with the idea that an object can be painted as if seen from many angles, creating a more comprehensive account of it. Picasso certainly took this idea to its extreme between 1909-1911, when his work can be defined as Analytical Cubism. Seated Female Nude is a good example of how multiple angles are included and how his style is becoming increasingly fragmented and disintegrated. He collaborated greatly with George Braque as the established Cubism and explored the limits of it together. Objects, forms and figures became increasingly fragmented and almost unrecognizable, like flat pieces floating in an open space. |
Collage Cubism
As objects and form became more mysterious in Cubist paintings, Picasso and Braque took it another step with the inclusion of pasted on elements like paper and stenciling. Braque in particular had a gift in organizing these overlaps to still show good taste and technique. Georges Braque This French painter focused mainly on using colour, line and multiple perspectives to depict form. Working closely with Picasso their paintings became difficult to distinguish at one point. His Collages were a scene of visual harmony. In Le Courier the abstract arrangement of objects eliminate the idea of illusionistic space while still extracting new meaning through a combination of overlapping forms. |
Orphic Cubism
By 1914 there were subsidiary forms of Cubism emerging. Orphism was considered a from of pure painting where form no longer mattered. Artists who drove this movement were Sonia and Robert Delaunay, Fernand Léger, Marcel Duchamp and Francis Picabia.
By 1914 there were subsidiary forms of Cubism emerging. Orphism was considered a from of pure painting where form no longer mattered. Artists who drove this movement were Sonia and Robert Delaunay, Fernand Léger, Marcel Duchamp and Francis Picabia.
Sonia Delaunay along with her husband Robert Delaunay explored the visual intensity in the relationship between colour and form. She created a depiction of the world that was scinitlilating, one where the viewer had to piece it together to experience the subject. In Le Bal Bullier primary and secondary colours burst together through her clever manipulation and placement of colour.
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Fernand Léger's works fluctuated between cubism and abstraction. In his painting Contrast of Forms we see his graphic use of forms and colour. He had a keen interest in technology and machinery which translated to his paintings always feeling like they are in motion. It is interesting how his clever combinations create volume while still not being three-dimensional.
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Futurism
Futurism is more of an ideology than a movement. It began in Italy with the publication of a manifesto by poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. Up to this point the Italian artists were lagging behind on the advances of technology and the modern world. Many still remained in rural lifestyles under the conservative power of the Roman Catholic Church. But when Marinetty took it upon himself to embrace the modern world, he did so violently, rejecting the past and exalting the beauty of the machine. (Janson, 1973). Artists quickly rallied behind him, including Umberto Bocciono who aimed for art to be a physical and total experience. Futurist artists placed an emphasis on intuition, action and motion. Though the Futurism Movement was short lived, as an ideology it had a great impact as it suggested that art could be more than just decorative pieces hung on walls.
Futurism is more of an ideology than a movement. It began in Italy with the publication of a manifesto by poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. Up to this point the Italian artists were lagging behind on the advances of technology and the modern world. Many still remained in rural lifestyles under the conservative power of the Roman Catholic Church. But when Marinetty took it upon himself to embrace the modern world, he did so violently, rejecting the past and exalting the beauty of the machine. (Janson, 1973). Artists quickly rallied behind him, including Umberto Bocciono who aimed for art to be a physical and total experience. Futurist artists placed an emphasis on intuition, action and motion. Though the Futurism Movement was short lived, as an ideology it had a great impact as it suggested that art could be more than just decorative pieces hung on walls.
Umberto Boccioni
By combining French style, Cubism, Neo Impressionisn and Symbolism, he created unique and futuristic compositions. For him the modern world was always in a state of flux, moving and changing and he sought to representing that. This resulted in mystical and emotional pieces, like The City Rises. It explores the dynamicism of change. First man wrestled with the beast, the horse shown charging the streets. Now man is wrestling with technology and expansion, shown by the city and workers. It is a great example of the Futurist intrigue with modern urban life. |
The Futurist ideology also greatly impacted on sculpture, with artist again exploring the notion of movement and change. Surfaces are angled and shapely, as though constantly reforming or evolving. Like The Horse by Raymond Duchamp-Villon and Unique Forms of Continuity in Space by Umberto Boccioni.
Abstract or Non-objective Art
As Cubism was already pushing the boundaries of appearances, it seemed inevitable that art would become completely abstract, not related to any form, but completely in and of itself, originating from the artists' mind. Abstract art found its springboard in Russia starting with a movement called Rayonism. A method invented by Mikhail Larionov and Nathalia Goncharova who distorted objects into angular patterns and shapes to resemble rays of light. Their work served as inspiration for other contemporaries like Kasimir Malevich. He was the founder of Suprematism and his philosophical theories and ideas would later go on to underpin non-objective, or abstract, art.
As Cubism was already pushing the boundaries of appearances, it seemed inevitable that art would become completely abstract, not related to any form, but completely in and of itself, originating from the artists' mind. Abstract art found its springboard in Russia starting with a movement called Rayonism. A method invented by Mikhail Larionov and Nathalia Goncharova who distorted objects into angular patterns and shapes to resemble rays of light. Their work served as inspiration for other contemporaries like Kasimir Malevich. He was the founder of Suprematism and his philosophical theories and ideas would later go on to underpin non-objective, or abstract, art.
Architecture
In Architecture, the American Artist Frank Lloyd Wright led the way with his instinctual sense for architecture. He "championed a personal belief that architecture should address the physical, social, and spiritual needs of the inhabitant while remaining in harmony with the landscape" (Artsy, 2017). His philosophy is based on the principal of 'organic architecture', that a building should grow out of its environment. He has numerous followers and is still considered one of the greatest American architects. Some of his buildings include, Robie House, Chicago, and the Larkin Building in Buffalo.Looking at the structures you can see the Cubist influence in his angular and shapely approach. The facade is no longer as important as the function of the building.
In Architecture, the American Artist Frank Lloyd Wright led the way with his instinctual sense for architecture. He "championed a personal belief that architecture should address the physical, social, and spiritual needs of the inhabitant while remaining in harmony with the landscape" (Artsy, 2017). His philosophy is based on the principal of 'organic architecture', that a building should grow out of its environment. He has numerous followers and is still considered one of the greatest American architects. Some of his buildings include, Robie House, Chicago, and the Larkin Building in Buffalo.Looking at the structures you can see the Cubist influence in his angular and shapely approach. The facade is no longer as important as the function of the building.
Exercise: Research twentieth-century still life
Still life took on renewed vitality in the twentieth century. Look at the work of Matisse and the Expressionists, for example.
Research how the Cubists also explored new ways of painting objects by treating them as faceted volumes or fragmenting
their appearance and reconstructing them from several different points of view.
their appearance and reconstructing them from several different points of view.
With the exception of some Synthetic Cubist works, early twentieth-century artists still portrayed objects in ways that suggested their individual histories. For example, Picasso’s mixed media sculpture, A Glass of Absinthe, included an actual spoon, which feels as if it had been taken straight from the table of a Parisian café.
By the 1960s, however, Pop artists were beginning to portray soup cans and cleaning products in their pristine packaging as anonymous cyphers of modern life. Make notes about the artist’s choice of subject. If you can, find out what the artist had to say about their choice. Does this sort of image qualify as ‘still life’? If not, why not? What, if any, are the criteria for still life?
Through the course we have been looking at still life and how it has grown and been accepted as a genre. Traditionally still lifes are made up of flowers, fruits, household or kitchen items arranged on table. Often used as ways for artists to enhance their skills an ability to depict form. These later took on story telling, as chosen objects became allegorical or symbolic.
In the 20th century artist truly began exploring their perceptions of the world, which also meant interesting changes for the Still Life genre. Fauvists like Matisse injected the genre with violent colour, seen in Still Life with Geraniums. The German Expressionists, like Emil Nolde took an individualistic approach seen in Still Life with Dancers and Red Poppies.
Through the course we have been looking at still life and how it has grown and been accepted as a genre. Traditionally still lifes are made up of flowers, fruits, household or kitchen items arranged on table. Often used as ways for artists to enhance their skills an ability to depict form. These later took on story telling, as chosen objects became allegorical or symbolic.
In the 20th century artist truly began exploring their perceptions of the world, which also meant interesting changes for the Still Life genre. Fauvists like Matisse injected the genre with violent colour, seen in Still Life with Geraniums. The German Expressionists, like Emil Nolde took an individualistic approach seen in Still Life with Dancers and Red Poppies.
Both Matisse and Nolde are using a more vibrant colour palette. The composition feels flat, although there is still use of shading and shadows to give object a 3D feel. The Red Poppies certainly break with the traditional idea of flowers, as they are not in a specific setting, but merely floating in space. The close-up and high angle is also unconventional and this gives the work a more emotional feel. As a viewer it is almost as though you are looking down on them in a field to pick them, which I believe is the emotive response the artist may be looking for.
Meanwhile, the Cubists took inspiration from Cezanne's geometric compositions and stretched this further into multi-surfaced compilations of shapes and lines such as Violin and Candlestick by Georges Braque, Still Life with Chair Caning by Picasso, and Still Life with Fruit Dish and Mandolin by Juan Gris.
It is quite fascinating how the cubists changed the depiction of objects. Even though the angular and geometric lines are very obvious, their use of shadow and light also provides the image with a three dimensional depth that still provides the object with a sense of realism. Violin and Candlestick and Still Life with Chair Caning brings out the idea of collage more, with the objects being mirrored and fragmented around the space, while Still Life with Fruit Dish and Mandolin has a more traditional composition, with objects being arranged on a space. Looking at these compositions as a viewer I still find myself considering the meaning of the objects. But what makes these works more interesting than the more classical still life traditions, is how as a viewer I now question my visual perceptions of these objects. The use of straight lines and angles, make me question curves and space. The unconventional use of colour also help you consider how that changes the perception and feeling of the objects.
In the United States painters like William Harnett and John Peto became known for their collage style arrangements. They were also referred to as trompe l'oeil (deceive the eye) arrangements, where the artists creates a composition or arrangement of objects that almost seem unreal or like trickery which often included some form paper, whether scraps, song sheets or newspaper articles. Harnett's arrangement of objects create a sense of whimsy. At first they appear flat, but then you start noticing the depth and contrast between objects like in his painting The Old Violin. We can see Harnett's influence on Peto's work in Fish House Door as there are many similarities in the composition. Peto had a particular skill for creating textured surfaces and both artists had a fine-tuned eye for representing objects with a crisp reality, particularly in though their use of cast shadows and surface textures.
Georgia O'Keeffe, an iconic modern American artists, took the traditional depiction of Still Life flowers to new heights with her extreme closeups and focal depictions of exotic flowers and American iconography. Her work can be classified as a combination between abstract and real as she plays with scale and colour to depict natural objects in unconventional ways.Flowers have been a popular theme in still life painting since the Dutch Masters, and they came with a range of symbolic meaning, like innocence, purity, fertility, devotion etc.
What O'Keeffe has done is to focus that symbolism on one specif flower. From a realistic point of view, it shows an interest in the actual design of the flower, the shapes, lines and colour, an appreciation for its intricacy. From a symbolic point of view the flowers take on a more erotic meaning, usually representing female genitalia. As an artist she advocated that woman should be independent. She used her canvas to explore the strength in the female perspective. This made her an empowering role model for other female artists. |
There were those who rejected the flat spaces created by cubist and aimed to return shape and meaning to the still life genre. Artists like Marcel and Duchamp of the Dada Movement and the foremost Italian painter Giorgio Morandi.
Morandi approached Still Life with a poetic subtlety, truly focusing on tonal variations and simple subjects. He was engaged in understanding the process of representation, through a consistent and minimalist approach. As a modern painter Morandi did not really fall under a particular movement, as there is evidence of many movement ideas in his work, like the Cubist painters attention to line, the expressionists attention to colour and brush stroke, and the abstracts attention to physical representations. In Natura Morta II we see his use of emanating light, muted colour tones and simplistic composition. We also get a sense that the objects are alive, showing his skill of representing physicality.
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Marcel Ducamp used his series of 'readymades' to question the authenticity of art, the relationship of art as a product to its creator and the societal trend of consumerism. This once again highlighted the role of the artist as a craftsman, taking away the focus of art being paintings only. He created installments using mass-produced items that were commercially available to all. These installation not only questioned what art is, but also how we defined good or bad taste within art.
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Surrealists and Pop artists also played their role in turning Still Life on it's head and questioning previous traditions and conventions. With the Surrealist creating a blur between fiction and reality, their still life composition certainly rejected traditional conventions. Still maintaining the trend of symbolism or allegory, objects no longer felt still. The imaginative illusions of objects floating, flying or melting, like those of Salvador Dali, took away the notion of objects having to be dead or motionless.
In Fast Moving, Dali uses a combination of objects and techniques to explore his passions, science, nature and mathematics. A constant state of flux and discovery, which is why the objects appear to be in motion. |
Pop Artists like Andy Warhol and Jeff Koon's followed on from Duchamp's readymades with their explorations of popular American iconography, which they explored through painting, printmaking, photography and sculpture, again taking the idea of still life to the next level. Their use of popular images challenged the idea of originality, leading to many appropriation pieces. Roy Lichtenstein's Still Life with Goldfish is a great example of appropriate the well known and with the current trends of the time. Taking inspiration from The Goldfish (1912) by Matisse, he has made reference to the known, while representing it in the current pop culture style. The bold use of colour and the animated lines and details making it feel like a mass produced print for a comic strip.
Photography continued to gain popularity during the 20th century and truly stepped into its own in the late part of the century. Though one may argue that photography doesn't quite fall under the still life genre, it certainly does push the notion of still life to another level. A photo represents a frozen moment in time, it captures an event, place, person or object and creates a moment of stillness. Along with the Pop Artists, photographers were engaged with every day life, the banal, the mass produced and consumed. Consider who products or staged and arranged for advertisements, these certainly shows an artists eye. Or finding the correct angle and light for what may be a completely banal scene, and making it a moment of celebration. The American Artist Williiam Eggleston had an eccentric way of capturing the mystery or beauty behind a seemingly unimportant subject. His work also helped elevate colour photography in the field of arts.
Regardless of the style or medium Still Life is here to stay as people will continue to have a fascination with the objects round them.
Introduction
The 20th century began with a sense of new hope, a hope that was no longer attached to a religion but rather in Nature and Materialism. Their was a continued hunger for growth, independence and prosperity. This utopian mind set would not last long as political unrest would spark great devastation and destruction. World War began in 1914 with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, which spanned a series of threats leading to unpresidented levels of warfare between Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire fought against Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Romania, Japan and the United States. Despite the complexity of the destruction and events, artist continued to make art, including painting, photography and cinema, using these mediums to respond with graphic illustrations of what gripped society. During the inter-war period Paris remained the center for Western art and fashion.
With the dust still settling after WWI and a sense of foreboding towards WWII, there continued to be political tensions. Artists continued to use their surroundings and experiences for inspiration, and as such, propaganda art increased. Some were used to glorify and call to arms, while others were created to satirize and ridicule. Nonetheless, these poster designs fed well into the new notions of mass production, as they were circulated to the nations.
Dadaism
The carnage and mass killings of World War 1 drove many artists to despair. In response Marcel Duchamp and a number of other artists, including poets and writers with shared attitudes ,launched a movement called Dada. It is an ideology based around mocking the modern world and what it had become. Our thirst for material things and power had driven us to destruction, rendering all our values, morals and aesthetic tastes meaningless. They intended on creating pieces that would attack and shock society.
The 20th century began with a sense of new hope, a hope that was no longer attached to a religion but rather in Nature and Materialism. Their was a continued hunger for growth, independence and prosperity. This utopian mind set would not last long as political unrest would spark great devastation and destruction. World War began in 1914 with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, which spanned a series of threats leading to unpresidented levels of warfare between Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire fought against Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Romania, Japan and the United States. Despite the complexity of the destruction and events, artist continued to make art, including painting, photography and cinema, using these mediums to respond with graphic illustrations of what gripped society. During the inter-war period Paris remained the center for Western art and fashion.
With the dust still settling after WWI and a sense of foreboding towards WWII, there continued to be political tensions. Artists continued to use their surroundings and experiences for inspiration, and as such, propaganda art increased. Some were used to glorify and call to arms, while others were created to satirize and ridicule. Nonetheless, these poster designs fed well into the new notions of mass production, as they were circulated to the nations.
Dadaism
The carnage and mass killings of World War 1 drove many artists to despair. In response Marcel Duchamp and a number of other artists, including poets and writers with shared attitudes ,launched a movement called Dada. It is an ideology based around mocking the modern world and what it had become. Our thirst for material things and power had driven us to destruction, rendering all our values, morals and aesthetic tastes meaningless. They intended on creating pieces that would attack and shock society.
Marcel Duchamp
He began as a painter in France working in a dynamic Futurist version of Cubism, evident in the dynamic lines of Nude Descending a Staircase. Although from the start he was an anarchist, searching for ways to questions art. Drawn more towards the avant-garde and anti-academic he immigrated to New York where his career really took off. He became more and more interested in concepts rather than painting specifically, which is why many consider him the father of Conceptual Art. As the great driving force behind the Dada movement he proceeded to question the notions of art by creating a series called 'Ready Mades'. The most controversial of which was his Fountain.
He began as a painter in France working in a dynamic Futurist version of Cubism, evident in the dynamic lines of Nude Descending a Staircase. Although from the start he was an anarchist, searching for ways to questions art. Drawn more towards the avant-garde and anti-academic he immigrated to New York where his career really took off. He became more and more interested in concepts rather than painting specifically, which is why many consider him the father of Conceptual Art. As the great driving force behind the Dada movement he proceeded to question the notions of art by creating a series called 'Ready Mades'. The most controversial of which was his Fountain.
Another of his most influential pieces was The Bride Stripped Bare by her Bachelors, Even. It baffled the art world with its fusion of mechanics, fantasy, paint and glass. It was a revolution in the visual conception of art. "It asserts the value of the work of art as a 'sign, as a 'machine for producing meanings' and for compelling the active contemplation and creative participation of the viewer" (Honor and Fleming, 2003).
Though the anarchist and anti-art notions of the Dadaists would end in discontent for their total absurdity and lack of standards, they did open up the idea of art being a voyage to the unknown provinces of the creative mind (Janson, 1973). And thus the emergence of Surrealism.
Surrealism
Led by the poet Andre Breton, their concepts were rooted in psychoanalysis, understanding the unconscious, an influence from the writings of Karl Marx. Many of these artists hoped that their ability to reveal the contradictions of the modern world would help to spark a revolution. Though this movement was less anarchistic than the Dada movement, it used its anti-bourgeois and psychological approach to change the course of Modern Art. Two of the most notorious Surrealist artist were Salvador Dali and Max Ernst and It was their theories of automatism that became the catalyst for Abstract Expressionism.
Sigmund Freud is considered one of the great precursors for the Surrealist movement. His psychoanalytical theories regarding the unconscious and erotic can be seen as echoes in many of the Surrealists work, including that of writers, sculptors and painters, often referred to as artistic Freudianism.
Though the anarchist and anti-art notions of the Dadaists would end in discontent for their total absurdity and lack of standards, they did open up the idea of art being a voyage to the unknown provinces of the creative mind (Janson, 1973). And thus the emergence of Surrealism.
Surrealism
Led by the poet Andre Breton, their concepts were rooted in psychoanalysis, understanding the unconscious, an influence from the writings of Karl Marx. Many of these artists hoped that their ability to reveal the contradictions of the modern world would help to spark a revolution. Though this movement was less anarchistic than the Dada movement, it used its anti-bourgeois and psychological approach to change the course of Modern Art. Two of the most notorious Surrealist artist were Salvador Dali and Max Ernst and It was their theories of automatism that became the catalyst for Abstract Expressionism.
Sigmund Freud is considered one of the great precursors for the Surrealist movement. His psychoanalytical theories regarding the unconscious and erotic can be seen as echoes in many of the Surrealists work, including that of writers, sculptors and painters, often referred to as artistic Freudianism.
Salvador Dali
This Spanish painter tried to capture the hallucinatory clarity of dreams. Freudian undertones are evident in his work that shows an obsession with eroticism, death and decay. He credits his artistic vision to a constant state of paranoia or a permanent disorientation form reality. His pieces shows his interest in Classic Renaissance art through his use of a hyper-realistic style and religious symbolism. In The Persistence of Memory he depicts the fluidity of time. The contrast between hard and soft objects shows he desire to flip reality. |
Max Ernst
This German artist used innovative and dream-like imagery to provoke and mock society. As with Dali, Ernst's work is filled with Freudian undertones. While questioning the conventions of academic painting in order to explore autonomism, Ernst developed a technique called Frottage; pencil rubbings of such things as wood grain, fabric, or leaves. The would combine the various textures produced to create futuristic objects or creatures, like The Fugitive. He also experimented with collage as a means to unveil his primal emotions and personal trauma. |
René Magritte
This Belgium artist was well revered in the Surrealist movement for his unique approach. His painting technique was one of clarity and simplicity, while his subject was usually contradictory provoking. He often repeated images in paintings, likely as a way to question the originality of art. His use of subtle symbolism and text gives his work mystery, forcing the viewer to make their own, often unsettling, interpretations. In Le Viol we see once again ho Freud's philosophy on primal instincts have influenced the arts. Man's sexual nature means that he only sees a woman's body and not her face. It is also believed to represent Magritte's mother whom he witnessed being pulled from a river after commiting suicide. Her night gown was tangled around her face, leaving her naked body exposed. |
Women and Surrealism
No previous movement had inspired women more to express their individualism as Surrealism did. Even though the art scene was still dominated by men, this movement gave women a voice, elevating their creative abilities and breaking preconceived ideas about the female image. Particularly popular in Mexico and the US, female artists like Frida Kahlo and chose to convey their past experiences, fears, hopes and desires.
No previous movement had inspired women more to express their individualism as Surrealism did. Even though the art scene was still dominated by men, this movement gave women a voice, elevating their creative abilities and breaking preconceived ideas about the female image. Particularly popular in Mexico and the US, female artists like Frida Kahlo and chose to convey their past experiences, fears, hopes and desires.
Frida Kahlo
This Mexican artist made use of visual symbolism to explore and understand pain and suffering. An exploration of self, loss and death. She became an important role model of what it meant to be a woman in a world that was still dominated by men. She paved the way in breaking down gender stereotypes by putting on her canvas issues that were often not discussed, using her own experiences. In Henri Ford Hospital she makes reference to her miscarriage. The objects surrounding her are literal and symbolic of what surrounded her in that moment and how all these things 'attach' to her experience, forming a part of her physical and emotional experience. |
Sculpture
With the Dada movement pushing its ideas of 'What makes art?' and the Surrealists unleashing the freedom to 'invent' from the subconscious, it had a great impact on sculpture. Combine that with the new industrial age, and you have pieces that almost begin to resemble fantasy collage structures. Chiseling molding and developed was being replaced with constructing, re-purposing and building. Like Picasso's Head of a Women and Julio González' Woman Combing her Hair. González referred to working with metal in this way as it being like 'drawing' but in real form. His work and teachings went a long way in giving metal a more sensuous feeling and taking it 'out of the industrial box'.
With the Dada movement pushing its ideas of 'What makes art?' and the Surrealists unleashing the freedom to 'invent' from the subconscious, it had a great impact on sculpture. Combine that with the new industrial age, and you have pieces that almost begin to resemble fantasy collage structures. Chiseling molding and developed was being replaced with constructing, re-purposing and building. Like Picasso's Head of a Women and Julio González' Woman Combing her Hair. González referred to working with metal in this way as it being like 'drawing' but in real form. His work and teachings went a long way in giving metal a more sensuous feeling and taking it 'out of the industrial box'.
Contstantin Brancusi by contrast was still true to the notion of working his materials by hand. Sculpture for him was spiritual and his ability to allow his subject to depict his simple form was mystic and poetic. There was a precision and simplicity to his work that it looked almost machine-made. British sculptor Henri Moore was also sensitive to the tactile qualities of his materials, allowing the materials to dictate the form and function of his subject. Their works set the tone for a new type open-form sculpture.
Photography
Photography was growing in popularity, particularly within the scene of reporting and were now typical features in newspapers, magazines and books. Artists also continued to make use of photography to captures scenes for inspiration, while avid photographers continued to advocate for the artistic nature of photography. Though it had already been accepted as a creative art form in the previous century, it was still fighting the battle of being considered inferior. The mass-produced and automated nature of photography, coupled with its easy access to any amateur, didn't help either. There were however, some pioneers who paved the way for photography to keep up with the modernizing art world, like Alfred Stieglitz.
Photography was growing in popularity, particularly within the scene of reporting and were now typical features in newspapers, magazines and books. Artists also continued to make use of photography to captures scenes for inspiration, while avid photographers continued to advocate for the artistic nature of photography. Though it had already been accepted as a creative art form in the previous century, it was still fighting the battle of being considered inferior. The mass-produced and automated nature of photography, coupled with its easy access to any amateur, didn't help either. There were however, some pioneers who paved the way for photography to keep up with the modernizing art world, like Alfred Stieglitz.
Alfred Stieglitz
Stieglitz insisted that photography warranted a place in the fine arts and did so through many publications, exhibits and by forming the Photo-Session society. His own work showed that mastering the camera, one could produce atmospheric, textural and painterly compositions in photographs. His keen artistic eye for naturally interesting objects and textures helped him capture subjects that intrigued the viewer, like his series on clouds. Clouds have been the subject matter of paintings for centuries, and Stieglitz felt that their constant movement or changes in light, shadow and form, were similar to the changes in society and emotions. |
The Dada Movement also had an impact on photography, notably in the form of collage called photomontage. Particularly during the time of the two World Wars, they were used as a means to express the problems with politics. One artist who made a great impact in this field is John Hearfield. He had a great talent in choosing images to juxtapose in way that would provoke the viewer. Most of his montages involved expressing political dissent with the German Communist Party. Photography was fast becoming a means for creating awareness. Capturing the stories of those who don't always have a voice, documenting the plight of those overlooked, like the work of Dorothea Lange and celebrating the idiosyncrasy of human behavior, like photographs from Henri Cartier-Bresson. This is the moment when photography began standing on its own as contemporary art form.
During the October Revolution of 1917, there was an advanced group of Russian artists who supported the revolution's goals. They replaced the traditional ideas of composition with construction, starting the influential modern art movement Constructivism. The idea was to take art from the studio to the factory and put to use in modern mass production. It was an analysis of materials and forms of art in order to design functional objects. Their ideology was ant-aesthetic. "The artist's mission was to express the aspirations of the revolutionary proletariat and enhance the physical and intellectual conditions of society" Honor and Fleming, 2003: 819)
Monument to the Third International by Vladimir Tatlin, also sometimes called Tatlin's Tower, is the artist's most famous work. Though never fully realized, it was an important spur to the formation of the Constructivist movement. It is a 1,300 feet steel frame which was intended to be a fully functional conference space and propaganda center for the Communist Third International, or Comintern. |
Di Stijl was a group of Dutch abstract artist that were particularly cerebral and idealistic. Founded by Piet Mondrian, Theo von Doesburg and Jacobus Johannes Pieter Oud, they pursued a more spiritual form of art.They worked on combining a visual harmony of primary colours and geometric forms to represent absolute purity and harmony, which were not only limited to painting and sculpture. They also explored their ideals in industrial design, typography, literature and music.
Piet Mondrian He renounced the idea of a world with physical appearances and rather saw all things as shapes lines and primary colours. He painted with a methodical and analytical approach using high minded thinking and pure lines. His goal was not to create symmetry, but balance. His ability to simplify his compositions with a pure visual language was crucial in the development of modern art. |
Bauhaus
This was one of the most influential modern art schools in the 19th and 20th Cenutry. It was started by Walter Gropius who had a vision for uniting Fine Art and Crafts, and that there should be no barriers between art forms, but rather a collaboration. Around the 1920's, along with the influence of Cubism and Industrialization, they too adjusted to acknowledging the machine in the process of creation and in doing so reunited manufacturing with creativity. In 1925 the school moved to Dessau, where they started including architecture. The teachings and designs of Walter Gophius and Gerrit Rietvield introduced Europe and America to a new distinguished asymmetrical style of clean cut cubic shapes, slab roofs, large windows and a complete absence of ornamentation or moldings. Characteristics that made heir buildings feel monumental, open and weightless.
This was one of the most influential modern art schools in the 19th and 20th Cenutry. It was started by Walter Gropius who had a vision for uniting Fine Art and Crafts, and that there should be no barriers between art forms, but rather a collaboration. Around the 1920's, along with the influence of Cubism and Industrialization, they too adjusted to acknowledging the machine in the process of creation and in doing so reunited manufacturing with creativity. In 1925 the school moved to Dessau, where they started including architecture. The teachings and designs of Walter Gophius and Gerrit Rietvield introduced Europe and America to a new distinguished asymmetrical style of clean cut cubic shapes, slab roofs, large windows and a complete absence of ornamentation or moldings. Characteristics that made heir buildings feel monumental, open and weightless.
Architecture
Combining the ideas of Cubism, Constructivism, Bauhaus and De Stijl, architects were now looking for straight-forward and no-nonsense designs. Two artist who were leading the pack at this time, were Charles-Edouard Jeanneret (aka Le Corbusier) and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Le Corbusier believed that a house, like a machine, should be build with rational thought and not encumbered by trickery or lying facades, where function takes president over form.
Combining the ideas of Cubism, Constructivism, Bauhaus and De Stijl, architects were now looking for straight-forward and no-nonsense designs. Two artist who were leading the pack at this time, were Charles-Edouard Jeanneret (aka Le Corbusier) and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Le Corbusier believed that a house, like a machine, should be build with rational thought and not encumbered by trickery or lying facades, where function takes president over form.
Le Corbusier had an international impact on architecture, design and city planning. He combined the ideas of functionalism and sculptural expressionism. In 1923 he wrote a book, Toward a New Architecture, where he advocated his idea of a house as a machine, which became a bilble of sorts for the next generation of architects.
His definition of Modern Architecture was: pillars as the building support to free the ground beneath; a roof terrace that could be used as a garden; open floor plan; ornamentation free facade; strip windows that affirm the independence of the structure (Choay, 2016) |
American Painters
Post war in America, artist mainly chose to depict the impacts of modern life through Realism and Abstraction. Artist like Edward Hopper and Charles Sheeler used Realism to depict urban scenes. Meanwhile the the completion of the Santa Fe Railroad, meant an increase in depictions of the unsullied landscapes of the Soutwest by artist like Georgia O' Keeffe and William Henri Jackson.
Politics continued to influence social and artistic relationships, especially so between North and South America, with the latter still being perceived as primitive. The Mexican painter, Diego Rivera, played a large role in changing the perceptions of South American artists and the value of public art, while pushing his political agendas. He used Italian Fresco inspired murals to depict the plight of the Mexican peasant and social inequality.
Post war in America, artist mainly chose to depict the impacts of modern life through Realism and Abstraction. Artist like Edward Hopper and Charles Sheeler used Realism to depict urban scenes. Meanwhile the the completion of the Santa Fe Railroad, meant an increase in depictions of the unsullied landscapes of the Soutwest by artist like Georgia O' Keeffe and William Henri Jackson.
Politics continued to influence social and artistic relationships, especially so between North and South America, with the latter still being perceived as primitive. The Mexican painter, Diego Rivera, played a large role in changing the perceptions of South American artists and the value of public art, while pushing his political agendas. He used Italian Fresco inspired murals to depict the plight of the Mexican peasant and social inequality.
Edward Hopper
Hopper never really excepted being classified to a specific movement, as he felt his work stood on its own, representing his ideas. The industrial metropolis was the greatest theme for him, depicting the loneliness and alienation of people in these unrelenting neighborhoods. In Automat a woman takes refuge in a fast serve diner, implying the fleeting nature of her break. She is almost engulfed by her dark surroundings, higlhlighting her isolation. Hopper was particularly skilled at depicting the subject and the setting with equal significance, both sharing an important part in his narrative. |
Charles Sheeler
Sheeler used painting and photography to capture the American industrial age. He had a particular fascination with the urban landscape, the geometric forms of skyscrapers and factories. Much of his angular and geometric fascination was inspired by cubism. He was a great proponent of the relationship between the artists media and depicted object. This lead to great innovations in mixed media paintings. He was bold in experimenting with perspectives and viewpoints and did so with great precision. He would use his camera to take pictures and then recreate them as detailed drawings which later became paintings of impeccable detail, as seen in Skyscrapers below.
Sheeler used painting and photography to capture the American industrial age. He had a particular fascination with the urban landscape, the geometric forms of skyscrapers and factories. Much of his angular and geometric fascination was inspired by cubism. He was a great proponent of the relationship between the artists media and depicted object. This lead to great innovations in mixed media paintings. He was bold in experimenting with perspectives and viewpoints and did so with great precision. He would use his camera to take pictures and then recreate them as detailed drawings which later became paintings of impeccable detail, as seen in Skyscrapers below.
Diego Rivera
He mostly created large public murals inspired by Italian frescoes. The depicted social inequality, death, politics, technology and industry. As a memeber of the Communist party, he used his public forum to spark a revolution in Mexico, the states and the art world. The Making of a Fresco Showing the Building of a City shows Rivera's skill in understanding geometry and composition. It is a monumental piece encompassing the many topics Rivera concerned himself with, industrialization, peasant workers and capitalism. |
Art Deco
This was a decorative art movement that originated in France in the 1920s and affected the design of buildings, decorative arts, painting, sculpture and graphic design. Though the style drew inspiration from Cubism, De Stijl and Futurism, it created its own destinction. Designs were symmetrical, geometric, simple, stream-lined and aesthetically pleasing to the eye (The Art Story, 2017). Aware of the influence mass production had on the production of objects, this movement sought to return value to objects crafted with artistic precision and beauty, while still being machine-made, like the stainless steel spire crowning the Chrysler Building in New York.
This was a decorative art movement that originated in France in the 1920s and affected the design of buildings, decorative arts, painting, sculpture and graphic design. Though the style drew inspiration from Cubism, De Stijl and Futurism, it created its own destinction. Designs were symmetrical, geometric, simple, stream-lined and aesthetically pleasing to the eye (The Art Story, 2017). Aware of the influence mass production had on the production of objects, this movement sought to return value to objects crafted with artistic precision and beauty, while still being machine-made, like the stainless steel spire crowning the Chrysler Building in New York.
Exercise: Compare two abstract works
For example, you could choose an Abstract Expressionist painting and a piece of minimalist sculpture.
Think about:
- the processes and the materials used,
- the scale of the works
- whether they include any references to landscape or the human figure.
Write a list of adjectives that they evoke for you and then write two sentences about each, explaining how you think the artist has achieved this effect.
Think about:
- the processes and the materials used,
- the scale of the works
- whether they include any references to landscape or the human figure.
Write a list of adjectives that they evoke for you and then write two sentences about each, explaining how you think the artist has achieved this effect.
When the Abstract Expressionism movement emerged in the 1940's, critics placed the works of theses artists in two categories, the Action Painters and the Colour-Field Painters. For this comparison I will look at a work from each category in order to show how difficult it is to define Abstract Art. It is more of an ideal than a movement and impossible to link to one particular style. After the devastation of two World Wars, people were ready to pursue freedom in all its forms. Artists looked for new ways to express their emotions and reactions toward society by creating pieces that require a deeper level of thinking from their audience.
![Picture](/uploads/4/9/1/1/49115679/editor/no-6-violet-green-and-red-1951.jpeg?1521771871)
Description:
This is an oil painting, 24x36 inches in size, consisting of the horizontally blocked colours, violet, green and red. There is a hazy orange boarder surrounding each colour block which is not especially neat or straight. The only distinguishable forms would be those of the rectangles and border.
Method:
The artist would have painted the blocks of solid colour first, though it appears that he may have laid red across the whole canvas. As the green and orange are opaque, the covered the red below. The violet is likely diluted or spread more thinly, as some of the red underground is still visible. He likely used a soft brush to blur the borders into the solid blocks of paint.
Artist Intention:
Mark Rothko's work is a great example of Color-Field Abstract Expressionism. The artist wanted to explore the idea of representing complex thoughts and emotions in simplified ways. He understands that a particular colour will have a different impact on each individual, and this is what he was counting on. He wants the audience to be drawn away to their own subconscious associations with these colours in order form their own unique response to the piece.
Own Impressions:
As a viewer I do look at this piece and consider its meaning. I consider the colours as well as the ways in which the canvas has been divided. The division in particular gives the impression of a window. The red representing the inside frame that you are trapped behind, while the green and violet represents that which is outside, the green landscape and the violet sky. The appear far away and difficult to reach, which in this case creates a feeling of entrapment or unattainable goals. Off course this is just my unique response, according to my experiences or colour associations. This the artist's intention of the viewer contemplating or meditating over the image and creating their own meanings, has been fulfilled.
This is an oil painting, 24x36 inches in size, consisting of the horizontally blocked colours, violet, green and red. There is a hazy orange boarder surrounding each colour block which is not especially neat or straight. The only distinguishable forms would be those of the rectangles and border.
Method:
The artist would have painted the blocks of solid colour first, though it appears that he may have laid red across the whole canvas. As the green and orange are opaque, the covered the red below. The violet is likely diluted or spread more thinly, as some of the red underground is still visible. He likely used a soft brush to blur the borders into the solid blocks of paint.
Artist Intention:
Mark Rothko's work is a great example of Color-Field Abstract Expressionism. The artist wanted to explore the idea of representing complex thoughts and emotions in simplified ways. He understands that a particular colour will have a different impact on each individual, and this is what he was counting on. He wants the audience to be drawn away to their own subconscious associations with these colours in order form their own unique response to the piece.
Own Impressions:
As a viewer I do look at this piece and consider its meaning. I consider the colours as well as the ways in which the canvas has been divided. The division in particular gives the impression of a window. The red representing the inside frame that you are trapped behind, while the green and violet represents that which is outside, the green landscape and the violet sky. The appear far away and difficult to reach, which in this case creates a feeling of entrapment or unattainable goals. Off course this is just my unique response, according to my experiences or colour associations. This the artist's intention of the viewer contemplating or meditating over the image and creating their own meanings, has been fulfilled.
![Picture](/uploads/4/9/1/1/49115679/published/download_4.jpg?1522222526)
Description:
This is an oil painting, 20x14 inches consisting of a red background and black and white splattering or swirls on top. There are no recognizable shapes or forms on this image, which makes it true to its name.
Method:
Pollock would have painted the solid red background first and allowed that to dry completely. He would have needed to thin the white and black oil paints to allow them to drip, most likely bu adding another type of oil. Looking at the painting it seems he worked with the white colour first. He would have again needed to wait for that to dry in order to get the crisp distinctions we see. He then proceeded with the black. The canvas would likely be on the floor with him on a gigher surfac or ladder dripping paint freely from above, in what appears to be a swirling motion with no particular direction in mind, again staying true to the name, Free Form. The thicker areas show when the brush was just dipped and heavy with paint, and the 'swirls' thus harder to control. The lines get thinner and more defined as the paint on the brush runs out.
Artist Intention:
Jackson Pollock is a great example of an Action Painter, using high energy and vigorous gestures to express ideas. Having experienced difficulty to adjust to world ravaged by two World Wars, he was trying to find a way of expression that anguish. He was not looking for the traditional methods of using forms, shapes, highlights or shadows, but for something that makes the painter a real part of the canvas, like a performance. His method of dripping a throwing paint revolutionized the way the canvas was viewed. He wanted viewers to become a part of what he felt or experienced during the time of creation.
Own Impressions:
The first thing I notice about this image is the background, red. Viewing it with the splattering above, you realize the red that it is not a happy colour here. It represents a dark, troubling and violent time (even without understanding the context). the splattering above does make me think of the artist's method and I almost get an image of the energy required for him to make these swirls, almost like a conductor leading a symphony. the use of white and black give a sense of good battling evil, with an impression that evil is winning. As a whole image it also impresses the idea of jumbled electric cables to me, which has a great sense of chaos and energy. Overall, the canvas evokes feelings of frustration, loss and uncertainty, which I believe are the emotions Pollock would have wanted the viewer to feel, thus fulfilling its purpose.
Final Comparison:
Both these artists set out to engage their viewer's subconscious. by simplifying colours, shapes or forms, they are inviting the viewer to analyze and think more critically about what they see. It also allows a freedom for the viewer to make their own interpretations and judgements which really ties in well with the idea of free expression. From analyzing both images it is clear that colour can play a very important role in evoking emotions, although these are often culturally or personally significant. What is also interesting, is that despite both images not having a specific form, I still used associations to create forms, i.e. a window and electric cables. It is exciting that the Abstract Movement generated this freedom to express, define and interpret without particular limits.
This is an oil painting, 20x14 inches consisting of a red background and black and white splattering or swirls on top. There are no recognizable shapes or forms on this image, which makes it true to its name.
Method:
Pollock would have painted the solid red background first and allowed that to dry completely. He would have needed to thin the white and black oil paints to allow them to drip, most likely bu adding another type of oil. Looking at the painting it seems he worked with the white colour first. He would have again needed to wait for that to dry in order to get the crisp distinctions we see. He then proceeded with the black. The canvas would likely be on the floor with him on a gigher surfac or ladder dripping paint freely from above, in what appears to be a swirling motion with no particular direction in mind, again staying true to the name, Free Form. The thicker areas show when the brush was just dipped and heavy with paint, and the 'swirls' thus harder to control. The lines get thinner and more defined as the paint on the brush runs out.
Artist Intention:
Jackson Pollock is a great example of an Action Painter, using high energy and vigorous gestures to express ideas. Having experienced difficulty to adjust to world ravaged by two World Wars, he was trying to find a way of expression that anguish. He was not looking for the traditional methods of using forms, shapes, highlights or shadows, but for something that makes the painter a real part of the canvas, like a performance. His method of dripping a throwing paint revolutionized the way the canvas was viewed. He wanted viewers to become a part of what he felt or experienced during the time of creation.
Own Impressions:
The first thing I notice about this image is the background, red. Viewing it with the splattering above, you realize the red that it is not a happy colour here. It represents a dark, troubling and violent time (even without understanding the context). the splattering above does make me think of the artist's method and I almost get an image of the energy required for him to make these swirls, almost like a conductor leading a symphony. the use of white and black give a sense of good battling evil, with an impression that evil is winning. As a whole image it also impresses the idea of jumbled electric cables to me, which has a great sense of chaos and energy. Overall, the canvas evokes feelings of frustration, loss and uncertainty, which I believe are the emotions Pollock would have wanted the viewer to feel, thus fulfilling its purpose.
Final Comparison:
Both these artists set out to engage their viewer's subconscious. by simplifying colours, shapes or forms, they are inviting the viewer to analyze and think more critically about what they see. It also allows a freedom for the viewer to make their own interpretations and judgements which really ties in well with the idea of free expression. From analyzing both images it is clear that colour can play a very important role in evoking emotions, although these are often culturally or personally significant. What is also interesting, is that despite both images not having a specific form, I still used associations to create forms, i.e. a window and electric cables. It is exciting that the Abstract Movement generated this freedom to express, define and interpret without particular limits.
Post-War to Post-Modern
The Second World War was the deadliest is history. Sparked by Nazi Germany's invasion of poland, it grew to involve over 30 countries and an estimated 85 million fatalities. The end of the war and the defeat over the Nazis meant a decline in the political and economic power of Europe. Many artists and intellectuals who did not agree with the wars or feared persecution fled to America. Among them were great scientists like Albert Einstein, musicians like Igor Stravinsky, artists like Hans Hofmann and architects like Josef Albers whose radical and abstract new ideas were received by the Americans with new vigor. As a result America superseded Paris as the new center for Western art.
Abstract Expressionism
This was a movement developed in New York during the 1940's and 50's. It is defined by a combination of abstract forms, fields of colour and vigorous gestural expressionism. This new style of expressing oneself suited the post war traumas and anxieties that society was facing, and can be seen as a way to express American liberalism. Immigrant artists in particular shared the new predicament of being American while still dealing emotionally with the aftermath and destruction of WWII. This lead to highly expressive and personal art works that has no particular style in common, but rather a feverish energy and extremism. Critics also referred to the Abstract Expressionist artists as Action Painters.
The Second World War was the deadliest is history. Sparked by Nazi Germany's invasion of poland, it grew to involve over 30 countries and an estimated 85 million fatalities. The end of the war and the defeat over the Nazis meant a decline in the political and economic power of Europe. Many artists and intellectuals who did not agree with the wars or feared persecution fled to America. Among them were great scientists like Albert Einstein, musicians like Igor Stravinsky, artists like Hans Hofmann and architects like Josef Albers whose radical and abstract new ideas were received by the Americans with new vigor. As a result America superseded Paris as the new center for Western art.
Abstract Expressionism
This was a movement developed in New York during the 1940's and 50's. It is defined by a combination of abstract forms, fields of colour and vigorous gestural expressionism. This new style of expressing oneself suited the post war traumas and anxieties that society was facing, and can be seen as a way to express American liberalism. Immigrant artists in particular shared the new predicament of being American while still dealing emotionally with the aftermath and destruction of WWII. This lead to highly expressive and personal art works that has no particular style in common, but rather a feverish energy and extremism. Critics also referred to the Abstract Expressionist artists as Action Painters.
One of the most crucial figures in the evolution of Abstract Expressionism is Hans Hoffman. Understanding the flatness of the canvas, he believed that the only way to suggest depth was to create a 'push and pull' in the image, which is done through creating tension between colour, form and texture. His art school in New York, became the center for propagating Abstract Expressionism. Although Europe was trailing behind compared to this new transcendental phenomenon, artists like Matisse made use of new techniques like cutting and arranging colours as a means of recapturing innocence, as well the sculptures of Giacometti, whose mysterious heads and figures questioned organic existence.
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Jackson Pollock
His paintings are a great example of how a modern world ravaged by nuclear war and uncertainty can lead to a radical style that redefined painting and pictorial space on the canvas. He is easily considered one of the greatest American Painters and most influential in the changing face of art. It was his technique of dripping and pouring paint with a freedom and striking rhythm that revolutionized the process of creation and. The canvas became a limitless swirling vortex of colour that engulfed the viewer. |
Willem de Kooning
This Dutch painter was another celebrated Abstract Expressionist. He developed a vigorous gestural style by combining Cubism, Surrealism and Expressionism. Unlike Pollock, he still depicted figures and features, but though a process of distorting and re-assembly. In Woman 1 he explores the relationship between the figure and the ground, as well as questioning the traditional notions of the female figure in Western painting. His style often came across as aggressive and harsh as he worked and reworked images. |
Aside from the Action Painters, there was also a camp of artists referred to as colour-field painters. These artists worked in large areas of 1 or more flat colour. Pioneered by Mark Rothko, Barnett Newman, and Clyfford Still, it was seen as a way of exploring the infinite by abandoning suggestions of figuration. For Mark Rothko, this form of abstract expression was not about exploring the relationship between colour, but rather the expression of human emotion. These pieces draw in the viewer and the vastness of colour engulfs them, making it a type of spiritual experience. This type of grand and austere simplicity can also be seen in Newman's sculptures.
By the 1960s art was rapidly changing, as 'Post-was austerity and constraint were being succeeded by consumer-society affluence and prosperity ' (Honor & Fleming, 2003:841). Critics like Clement Greenberg were calling for art that is more disciplined and formalist. Formalism is the notion that art is self contained and self sufficient; independent of its maker, audience and the world. According to him the canvas could represent but two norms, flatness and the delimitation of flatness. Greenberg called this Post-Painterly Abstraction. Inspired by color-field painters, artist like Helen Frankenthaler and Morris Louis worked with linear designs, bright colors and open compositions lacking in detail.
Optical Art (Op Art)
Op art made use of geometrical abstraction to exploit the physiology of seeing ad the nature of perception. Artists made use of patterns and stark contrasts, usually black and white, to create optical illusions to trick and excite the eye, like Crest and Blaze by Bridget Riley. These pieces are believed to be a poetic metaphor for the spiritual unease of the 1960's.
Op art made use of geometrical abstraction to exploit the physiology of seeing ad the nature of perception. Artists made use of patterns and stark contrasts, usually black and white, to create optical illusions to trick and excite the eye, like Crest and Blaze by Bridget Riley. These pieces are believed to be a poetic metaphor for the spiritual unease of the 1960's.
Neo-Dada
While the Abstract Expressionists were adamant about non-objective representations, there were those artist who embraced the use of objects. Neo-Dada artists were particularity interested in objects that were socially recognizable, like Three Flags by Jasper Johns. This radical shift from the emotional expressions of abstract art paved the way for Pop Art, Conceptualism and Minimalism. |
Pop Art
This movement developed simultaneously and independently in Britain and the United States. Following the non-objective trend in Abstract Expressionism, Pop artists sought to bring back identifiable imagery, in fact, internationally identifiable imagery. Due to its incorporation of commercial images, it has become one of the most identifiable art styles of modern art. In America it was perpetuated by artist like Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstien. The idea of drawing inspiration of common place items, mass produced products and contemporary media also showcased around Europe. In France it was referred to as Nouveau Realisme, with such works as White Orchid by Arman, while in Germany it was termed Capitalist Realism with artists like Gerhard Richter made significant use of media imagery.
This movement developed simultaneously and independently in Britain and the United States. Following the non-objective trend in Abstract Expressionism, Pop artists sought to bring back identifiable imagery, in fact, internationally identifiable imagery. Due to its incorporation of commercial images, it has become one of the most identifiable art styles of modern art. In America it was perpetuated by artist like Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstien. The idea of drawing inspiration of common place items, mass produced products and contemporary media also showcased around Europe. In France it was referred to as Nouveau Realisme, with such works as White Orchid by Arman, while in Germany it was termed Capitalist Realism with artists like Gerhard Richter made significant use of media imagery.
Photography
Pop artists helped set the tone for the heights photography would reach in the late 20th century. Artist like Andy Warhol, Richard Hamilton and Diane Arbus showed how photography had the power to reveal mysteries and psychological truth. In the same way Realism captured the plight of the laborers in the 19th century, photographs were capturing the political and financial uncertainties of a people ravaged by war, by documenting what some may consider the every day or mundane.
Pop artists helped set the tone for the heights photography would reach in the late 20th century. Artist like Andy Warhol, Richard Hamilton and Diane Arbus showed how photography had the power to reveal mysteries and psychological truth. In the same way Realism captured the plight of the laborers in the 19th century, photographs were capturing the political and financial uncertainties of a people ravaged by war, by documenting what some may consider the every day or mundane.
Andy Warhol
Warhol in particular was a key player in elevating the status of photography as an art from, as he was the first artist to be declared a fin art photographer (Lee, 2016). Mostly working with Polaroids he captured objects and people in a type of visual diary. These images served as inspiration for sketches and pieces that later became paintings. |
Photographers also proved that their images can become just as famous as those of painters, like Alberto Koda's portrait of Che Guevara taken in 1960. It shows a new way of capturing character and meaning, from the viewpoint to the expression. It became evident that photography could also become a voice for those who couldn't articulate their aspirations, a notion that still rings true today.
Minimalism
Minimalism emerged in New York in the 1960s and was a way for artists to call attention back to the materials used to produce work, rather than a display of emotion and symbolism. The aim was to maintain the purity and integrity of the work. The 'understanding of art as an experience that unfolds in the relationship between viewer and work in actual space and over time is central to the challenge Minimalism presented' (Honor and Fleming, 2009). Artists like Carl Andre and Frank Stella broke with traditional conventions, by avoiding the representation of anything in particular, through the use of sleek lines, repetition, industrial materials and abnormal scales.
Minimalism emerged in New York in the 1960s and was a way for artists to call attention back to the materials used to produce work, rather than a display of emotion and symbolism. The aim was to maintain the purity and integrity of the work. The 'understanding of art as an experience that unfolds in the relationship between viewer and work in actual space and over time is central to the challenge Minimalism presented' (Honor and Fleming, 2009). Artists like Carl Andre and Frank Stella broke with traditional conventions, by avoiding the representation of anything in particular, through the use of sleek lines, repetition, industrial materials and abnormal scales.
Conceptual Art
The succession of avant-garde movements during the 20th century systematically continued to push the boundaries of art. This reached its height when conceptualist artists began questioning the nature of art as representation, thus re-defining the boundaries of art, like Joseph Kosuth's One and Three Chairs. This meant that an artistic idea could constitute as a piece of art, which could be displayed anywhere or in any form, like Daniel Buren's Sandwich Men and the Performnace piece Imponderabillia by Marina Abramovic. |
With pieces no longer having to prescribe to a particular form, it gave rise to performance art, photography and video art. With the invention of the television and video becoming available commercially there was a new interest among artist to expose societies relationship with consumerism and the media. Video art became an extension of traditional art forms, with blurred images representing the stroke of a brush, display media becoming part of a sculpture or installation and visuals taking on symbolic meanings or rhetorics for society. Some of the pioneers in this movement include Andy Warhol and Peter Campus.
Arte Povera
Arte Povera means 'poor art', a term coined by the Italian Art Critic Germano Celant. As part of the Avante Garde movemet it continued the trend of questioning the nature of art, whetehr art had simply become another commodity in a consummerist society. The 'poorness' was mostly represented through the use of simple artisinal materials, mostly represented sculpturaly, which aims to challenge the viewer in their relationship with modern society and the past, like Mario Merz's Igloo, Object Cache Toi.
Arte Povera
Arte Povera means 'poor art', a term coined by the Italian Art Critic Germano Celant. As part of the Avante Garde movemet it continued the trend of questioning the nature of art, whetehr art had simply become another commodity in a consummerist society. The 'poorness' was mostly represented through the use of simple artisinal materials, mostly represented sculpturaly, which aims to challenge the viewer in their relationship with modern society and the past, like Mario Merz's Igloo, Object Cache Toi.
Process Art
Process art is when the process involved in creating a piece of art is visible, similarly to how a painter's previous layers might be visible. It makes the viewer aware of the artist's hand in the creation of art. In Splashing, Richard Serra provides a record of how he ladelled molten lava onto the floor. |
Body Art
Body Art can also be referred to as performance art, as the artist uses their own body as a medium, often to communicate social, political or secxual issues. As a movement, it continued to question the value and placement of art. These performing artists were not afraid to confront their audience or the critics as a way to question the system. Bruce Nauman's Self-Portrai as a Fountain shows how the artist and the work of art becomes one. |
Earth and Land Art
Artists became evermore free from the confines of art traditions and gallery conventions, which lead to an exploration of landscape, a most powerful national metaphor. Mostly an American artform, the artists engaged in earhtworks did so as a response to the great American landscape. A notable work is Spiral Jetty by Robert Smithson, a collection of natural ud an coil packed in a spiral shape in the Great Salt Lake of Utah. It serves to show the blight of nature by drawing attention to time. Firstly through the changing (eroding) landscape and secondly through the use of a primeval symbol. |
Witth the invention and growing popularity of photography, many artists used photographs to assist in their compositions and paintings, though they would often hide it, as it was considered cheating an unacademic not to draw from life.
Photorealist artists, however, celebrated their use of photography through their detailed and exact replication of photographic images. Predominately an American movement, taking inspiration from Pop art, artists focussed on iconic imagary and products in a consumer driven America. The process of reproduction of an existing image was also another way of iluding to the idea mass production, like Charles Bell's depiction of two kids toys in Circus Act. |
In the wake of two world wars, there were artists who contiued to use their works as a means of highlighting polical and social injustices like the series of life-sized works by Leon Golub, Mercenaries, Interrogation and White Squads.
New Image Painting
With much of the art movements during the 1940s and 50s being more Conecptual and Minimalist it meant that works were often sculptural. This lead to a group of artists longing for the return of the human figure, but not in the Classical sense. The artists in this movement used an aproach one would almost consider ugly, with figurs and colour plains being flat and almost humourous, like David Hockney's Man Taking Shower in Beverly Hills. |
Post Modernism
Post Modernism was a reaction agaisnt the pracitices and structures put in place by the Modernist movement during the early to late 20th Century. As with Modernism, it cannot be defined by a single style. "While modernism was based on idealism and reason, postmodernism was born of scepticism and a suspicion of reason" (Tate, 2018).
Post Modernism was a reaction agaisnt the pracitices and structures put in place by the Modernist movement during the early to late 20th Century. As with Modernism, it cannot be defined by a single style. "While modernism was based on idealism and reason, postmodernism was born of scepticism and a suspicion of reason" (Tate, 2018).
Post Modernism brought back an awareness of style, even though one of their larger goals was to break the destinction between high and low art. Feminst art is a good example of Post Modern art as it challenges canonical ways of thinking, like Do Women Have to be Naked to get into the Met Museum? by Gorilla Girls. |
Post Modernisn in Architecture
Modern archtecture was considered formal, austere, and serious, a type of utopian remedy for society's social issues with its emphasis of function over form. Post Modern Architecture on the other hand chose once again to embrace decoration, drawing inspiration from several styles to create an eclectic and often whimsical aesthetic. Like a skyscraper adorned with Classical columns, bold and contrasting colour statements and metaphorical that draw inspiration from emotion or nature, like The Lotus Temple in India designed by Fariborz Sahba. |
Exercise: Watch a contemporary artist's video
There are a number of safe sites but take care which ones you go on. The following link will take you to a site which has works by Gillian Wearing, John Baldessari, Bill Viola, Andy Warhol and many others. Or you could look for video material on artists’ own websites or on sites like YouTube.
http://flavorwire.com/399191/50-great-works-of-video-art-that-you-can-watch-online
Reflect on how hearing an artist talk about their work enriches (or perhaps not) the experience of viewing their art.
http://flavorwire.com/399191/50-great-works-of-video-art-that-you-can-watch-online
Reflect on how hearing an artist talk about their work enriches (or perhaps not) the experience of viewing their art.
Ever is Over All Video
First Impressions
I wanted to write down some of my own impressions and interpretations of this piece first before reading other reviews or listening to the artist's commentary.
Using a large projection that is set up over a corner would mean that the viewer feels immersed in what they are viewing, they would become part of the environment. The split down the middle makes a distinction between two environments, however the fact that they are blended together and played at the same time shows that there is a link between these two environments. One the one side we have a 'man-made' world or city, on the other is nature. The artist might be trying to show us the connection between nature and man, or how we take nature for granted by destroying landscapes and exhausting resources. The woman is taking revenge by using nature to destroy the 'man-made' objects. The urban footage is framed and filmed logically to show the rigid nature of man-made plans, while the shots of nature are jagged, upside down and inside out, as nature is a force, its free.
On the other hand the flower could represent the woman's emotions. Even though her emotions are beautiful, they are also at times violent and hard to manage. The woman seems empowered by letting her emotions guide her.
I wanted to write down some of my own impressions and interpretations of this piece first before reading other reviews or listening to the artist's commentary.
Using a large projection that is set up over a corner would mean that the viewer feels immersed in what they are viewing, they would become part of the environment. The split down the middle makes a distinction between two environments, however the fact that they are blended together and played at the same time shows that there is a link between these two environments. One the one side we have a 'man-made' world or city, on the other is nature. The artist might be trying to show us the connection between nature and man, or how we take nature for granted by destroying landscapes and exhausting resources. The woman is taking revenge by using nature to destroy the 'man-made' objects. The urban footage is framed and filmed logically to show the rigid nature of man-made plans, while the shots of nature are jagged, upside down and inside out, as nature is a force, its free.
On the other hand the flower could represent the woman's emotions. Even though her emotions are beautiful, they are also at times violent and hard to manage. The woman seems empowered by letting her emotions guide her.
Ever is Over All - video with artist commentary
Commentary from Pipilotti Rist
The artist explains how the inspiration for the video came from a critic who told her to change some of her work. She felt overcome with anger in that moment and emagined breaking the windows of his car. Understanding that the rage was such a negative emotion, she wanted to find a way of making it more hopeful. The way the woman walks the street and smashes the cars is meant to feel normal, like it is part of her daily routine, hence why other passers by don’t react to what she is doing.
Rist also goes on to explain that her agenda was to make the audience think about their relationship with technology. How environments changed suddenly ad we just change with it, forgetting the time when we were independent of them.
On the opposite side of the screen she explains how this flower represent strength. Part of the reason why she filmed the flowers so closely, is to make you feel like an insect when watching it, that you experience their sheer size and power. This links back to the woman wielding the flower as a weapon, again showing its strength.
She also talks about how film for her is like painting with moving images. She particularly like to play with the colour compositions, as she believes we often take the colours around us for granted. The enhancement of the reds in the video along with the music, is meant to make the imagery more seductive and dangerous.
Final Thoughts
It is interesting to see the contrast of my own interpretations based purely on the video piece. I certainly didn't get it right completely or pieced together correctly, but I still managed to pick up on certain ideas which were part of the artists vision. Firstly, questioning our relationship with technological advancement, secondly, the power of nature and third the woman's freedom to express strong emotions. It is good to have a kind of confirmation from the artist that you have understood some of their intentions, but also to have them fill in some of the gaps.
It was useful to hear her talk about some of the logistical facts on how to produce or make the piece, as you often just look at a final product and don't always consider the time, money or decision making that went into creating it. Especially film, as there are many more factors to consider.
For this particular piece I believe hearing the artist's thoughts has enriched the experience, as it provided additional background and context as well as confirming interpretations. Though, if we are to buy into Green's theory that art should be in and of itself, then the artist intentions should not really matter. The piece will likely create or evoke a different feeling for each viewer, including myself.
The artist explains how the inspiration for the video came from a critic who told her to change some of her work. She felt overcome with anger in that moment and emagined breaking the windows of his car. Understanding that the rage was such a negative emotion, she wanted to find a way of making it more hopeful. The way the woman walks the street and smashes the cars is meant to feel normal, like it is part of her daily routine, hence why other passers by don’t react to what she is doing.
Rist also goes on to explain that her agenda was to make the audience think about their relationship with technology. How environments changed suddenly ad we just change with it, forgetting the time when we were independent of them.
On the opposite side of the screen she explains how this flower represent strength. Part of the reason why she filmed the flowers so closely, is to make you feel like an insect when watching it, that you experience their sheer size and power. This links back to the woman wielding the flower as a weapon, again showing its strength.
She also talks about how film for her is like painting with moving images. She particularly like to play with the colour compositions, as she believes we often take the colours around us for granted. The enhancement of the reds in the video along with the music, is meant to make the imagery more seductive and dangerous.
Final Thoughts
It is interesting to see the contrast of my own interpretations based purely on the video piece. I certainly didn't get it right completely or pieced together correctly, but I still managed to pick up on certain ideas which were part of the artists vision. Firstly, questioning our relationship with technological advancement, secondly, the power of nature and third the woman's freedom to express strong emotions. It is good to have a kind of confirmation from the artist that you have understood some of their intentions, but also to have them fill in some of the gaps.
It was useful to hear her talk about some of the logistical facts on how to produce or make the piece, as you often just look at a final product and don't always consider the time, money or decision making that went into creating it. Especially film, as there are many more factors to consider.
For this particular piece I believe hearing the artist's thoughts has enriched the experience, as it provided additional background and context as well as confirming interpretations. Though, if we are to buy into Green's theory that art should be in and of itself, then the artist intentions should not really matter. The piece will likely create or evoke a different feeling for each viewer, including myself.
Exercise: Bringing art history up to date
Imagine that you're writing a concise history of art. What contemporary work would you choose to end your history with and why? Have a go at writing a paragraph about your chosen work for inclusion at or near the end of your history.
21st Century Art
In our study of the history of Art, it is notable that regardless of the century, art tends to be a reflection of the times. Themes and ideas that are portrayed in art tend to follow the social, political or cultural atmosphere of what is happening around the world. Of course the artist's tools and equipment evolve as there are changes in technology and science, but if history has taught us anything, it is that art will always reflect life. Keeping this in mind when choosing a final art piece that reflects life in the 21st century, one would first have to consider what defines our century. I am choosing to focus on global issues, as these connect all countries and cultures, as I believe in the age of globalization, the final piece of art would have to represent global ideas.
1. The treatment of our planet and man's impact on nature, for example, pollution, exhausting resources, destroying landscapes etc.
2. Technology and Science growing exponentially, for example, the ethics involved in cloning, artificial intelligence, medicinal cures, advanced weaponry in the implication of that etc.
3. Population Growth - Managing education around birth control. Considering how the population affects sustainability and the GDP, medicine is making us live longer etc.
4. Globalization - how do we expand society without loosing site of individual culture, finding the right balance, collaboarting with others, sharing etc.
5. Well being - it was clear during my study of art in the different centuries, how every time there was a great technological or scientific advancement it forced people to look at their relationship with it, often resulting in ideas of how to scale back or find a healthy relationship with it. This century is becoming more involved in understanding what truly matters, and though it is still in the early stages, people are trying to find ways of understanding themselves better. The previous century's ideas of 'returning to nature' still seem to ring true.
Using the themes from above, I would choose a piece that will either address or create questions around all of these issues. It is likely that piece will be considered controversial and will continue to fuel the debate of 'Is it art?'
In our study of the history of Art, it is notable that regardless of the century, art tends to be a reflection of the times. Themes and ideas that are portrayed in art tend to follow the social, political or cultural atmosphere of what is happening around the world. Of course the artist's tools and equipment evolve as there are changes in technology and science, but if history has taught us anything, it is that art will always reflect life. Keeping this in mind when choosing a final art piece that reflects life in the 21st century, one would first have to consider what defines our century. I am choosing to focus on global issues, as these connect all countries and cultures, as I believe in the age of globalization, the final piece of art would have to represent global ideas.
1. The treatment of our planet and man's impact on nature, for example, pollution, exhausting resources, destroying landscapes etc.
2. Technology and Science growing exponentially, for example, the ethics involved in cloning, artificial intelligence, medicinal cures, advanced weaponry in the implication of that etc.
3. Population Growth - Managing education around birth control. Considering how the population affects sustainability and the GDP, medicine is making us live longer etc.
4. Globalization - how do we expand society without loosing site of individual culture, finding the right balance, collaboarting with others, sharing etc.
5. Well being - it was clear during my study of art in the different centuries, how every time there was a great technological or scientific advancement it forced people to look at their relationship with it, often resulting in ideas of how to scale back or find a healthy relationship with it. This century is becoming more involved in understanding what truly matters, and though it is still in the early stages, people are trying to find ways of understanding themselves better. The previous century's ideas of 'returning to nature' still seem to ring true.
Using the themes from above, I would choose a piece that will either address or create questions around all of these issues. It is likely that piece will be considered controversial and will continue to fuel the debate of 'Is it art?'
The piece I have chosen is a robot named Sophia. I realize that you would need to look up 'robot' and not 'art' in order to find images of her, however, if we are to think about some of the key ideas above, she makes a pretty good representation of them. Let's see how she measures up to the 5 points:
1. Our impact on the planet: "She was named the world’s first United Nation Innovation Champion by United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and will have an official role in working with UNDP to promote sustainable development and safeguard human rights and equality" (Hansonrobotics, 2018). Sophia already has a global name and cult following. She can use her celebrity status to create awareness.
2. Technology and Science: Sophia as herself already raises issues of Artificial Intelligence "she has appeared onstage as a panel member and presenter in high-level conferences, covering how robotics and artificial intelligence will become a prevalent part of people’s lives. Her reputation extends beyond business into the global social arena" (Hansrobotics, 2018)
3.Population Growth: Though she does not target this area directly, he existence forces us to consider our own.
4.Globalization: In a world where technology connects the world, Sophia has a unique platform. "She has become a media darling, appearing on major media outlets around the world, igniting the interest of people regardless of age, gender, and culture, even gracing the cover of one of the top fashion magazines. Her press coverage has a potential reach of over ten billion readers in 2017" (Hansonrobotics, 2018)
5. Well Being: Throughout the history of art man has tried to capture the human form. It evolved from flat cave drawings, to realistic depictions of expressions, to spiritual portrayals of the human condition. A part of well being is finding out who we are, what is our place, why am I here? Sophia's creator, Dr David Hanson, has created her to be creative, empathetic, and compassionate. She is meant to represent an extension of human intelligence. Again her appearance and personality, force us to look at ourselves. It would make sense that our depiction of form would evolve from flat to functional.
As you can see, this piece is a collaborative one. It is not something we can truly place in one particular box. Humans have become very good at categorizing everything as that is how it helps us to make sense of the world, but I believe that the Art of the future would not be able to prescribe to just one label.
But if we are looking at her as art, there certainly is a lot of evidence to support that she is. Any mechanical equipment is already sculptural in its design. Giving her additional humanistic features also incorporates elements of drawing. And like artists, scientist or engineers have to consider their intentions when creating.
1. Our impact on the planet: "She was named the world’s first United Nation Innovation Champion by United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and will have an official role in working with UNDP to promote sustainable development and safeguard human rights and equality" (Hansonrobotics, 2018). Sophia already has a global name and cult following. She can use her celebrity status to create awareness.
2. Technology and Science: Sophia as herself already raises issues of Artificial Intelligence "she has appeared onstage as a panel member and presenter in high-level conferences, covering how robotics and artificial intelligence will become a prevalent part of people’s lives. Her reputation extends beyond business into the global social arena" (Hansrobotics, 2018)
3.Population Growth: Though she does not target this area directly, he existence forces us to consider our own.
4.Globalization: In a world where technology connects the world, Sophia has a unique platform. "She has become a media darling, appearing on major media outlets around the world, igniting the interest of people regardless of age, gender, and culture, even gracing the cover of one of the top fashion magazines. Her press coverage has a potential reach of over ten billion readers in 2017" (Hansonrobotics, 2018)
5. Well Being: Throughout the history of art man has tried to capture the human form. It evolved from flat cave drawings, to realistic depictions of expressions, to spiritual portrayals of the human condition. A part of well being is finding out who we are, what is our place, why am I here? Sophia's creator, Dr David Hanson, has created her to be creative, empathetic, and compassionate. She is meant to represent an extension of human intelligence. Again her appearance and personality, force us to look at ourselves. It would make sense that our depiction of form would evolve from flat to functional.
As you can see, this piece is a collaborative one. It is not something we can truly place in one particular box. Humans have become very good at categorizing everything as that is how it helps us to make sense of the world, but I believe that the Art of the future would not be able to prescribe to just one label.
But if we are looking at her as art, there certainly is a lot of evidence to support that she is. Any mechanical equipment is already sculptural in its design. Giving her additional humanistic features also incorporates elements of drawing. And like artists, scientist or engineers have to consider their intentions when creating.
Visit a twentieth-century building and/or a piece of public art
Art Basel Hong Kong
I attended Art Basel Hong Kong in March. It was the first time I could make one as they always fall within our holidays when we are not in Hong Kong. It was really huge with many exhibition halls. Unfortunately I only had one evening to attend before flying home for the holidays. I was shocked at how busy it was, which means you kind of try to make a mad dash through exhibits and you are constantly competing with others to look at work. There were a couple of highlights, in particular seeing portraits by Lucian Freud, he is one of my favorite artists. It was also great to see Cindy Sherman's photographs on display as I was in the process of writing a review about her work. Te sculptures and installation pieces were generally very dynamic, there was a large piece that used soft silk and wind machines which was absolutely captivating. One technique that I found intriguing was apiece called Monnlit, consisting of wood panel with combinations of oil, lacquer, linen and emulsion, layered to create what looks like a giant tile (130 x 120 x 16 cm)