Activity
Khan Academy discussion on Saint John on Patmos, 1640 by Nicolas Poussin, available here.
This video helps to identify what areas to explore when discussing art. These include:
- A focus on the subject matter, picking out exactly what is seen in the composition and creating a context for it's use. Especially with a focus on the use of architecture and the poses of figures.
- Who commissioned the piece, as this will impact the many of the choices made by the artist. In this particular case the patron helps to identify the religious nature that the painting would require.
- Where the piece will be hung, which again impacts compositional choices.
- The artist's background, as their training or experiences of impact the type of work they produce and will help identify their individual stylistic features.
This video helps to identify what areas to explore when discussing art. These include:
- A focus on the subject matter, picking out exactly what is seen in the composition and creating a context for it's use. Especially with a focus on the use of architecture and the poses of figures.
- Who commissioned the piece, as this will impact the many of the choices made by the artist. In this particular case the patron helps to identify the religious nature that the painting would require.
- Where the piece will be hung, which again impacts compositional choices.
- The artist's background, as their training or experiences of impact the type of work they produce and will help identify their individual stylistic features.
Research Point
Working just prior to 1850, JMW Turner (1775–1851) is still renowned by today’s artists for his innovative use of material and method. Look for information on these ‘Romantic’ paintings and consider the following:
• What does the term ‘Romantic’ mean?
• In what ways do Turner’s paintings reflect what went before, and in what ways was he pointing towards something new? (You might find it useful to come back to the latter question once at the end of Part 1)
Visit Bridgeman Education and search for ‘Turner’, ‘Romantic’ and ‘landscape’. Investigate the National Gallery and Tate websites for more information about Turner.
• What does the term ‘Romantic’ mean?
• In what ways do Turner’s paintings reflect what went before, and in what ways was he pointing towards something new? (You might find it useful to come back to the latter question once at the end of Part 1)
Visit Bridgeman Education and search for ‘Turner’, ‘Romantic’ and ‘landscape’. Investigate the National Gallery and Tate websites for more information about Turner.
Romanticism
"Romanticism is a philosophical movement during the Age of Enlightenment which emphasizes emotional self-awareness as a necessary pre-condition to improving society and bettering the human condition (Philosophy Basics, 2017). It was largely centered in Germany which is why most of the painters were much more closer associated with the German poets and philosophers than those of France. It stood in opposition to the preceding schools of Rationalism and Empiricism of the preceding Age of Reason. It moved from the objective to the subjective, representing a freedom of expression which greatly affected the Arts.
Joseph, Mallord William Turner
This English painter was sublime in his expressionistic interpretations of light, colour and atmosphere. His paintings are passionately extravagant with an aim of documenting a landscape in it's variety of forms. As mentioned previously, the Romantic movement aimed to bring out personal, highly emotional and often tragic subject matter, like Delacroix's July 28: Liberty Leading the People (1830) or Gericault's The Raft of the Medusa (1819). Turner, however, took this form of emotional expression to new heights. Moving away from Realism, he employed atmospheric techniques that appeared more abstract in nature. Whether working in oils or watercolours, his landscapes employed innovative techniques, like the use of chromatic colour and sublime light. It was his ability to manipulate the paints, particularly the play between opacity and transparency that helped create his poetic pieces.
This English painter was sublime in his expressionistic interpretations of light, colour and atmosphere. His paintings are passionately extravagant with an aim of documenting a landscape in it's variety of forms. As mentioned previously, the Romantic movement aimed to bring out personal, highly emotional and often tragic subject matter, like Delacroix's July 28: Liberty Leading the People (1830) or Gericault's The Raft of the Medusa (1819). Turner, however, took this form of emotional expression to new heights. Moving away from Realism, he employed atmospheric techniques that appeared more abstract in nature. Whether working in oils or watercolours, his landscapes employed innovative techniques, like the use of chromatic colour and sublime light. It was his ability to manipulate the paints, particularly the play between opacity and transparency that helped create his poetic pieces.
In The Slave Ship he has created a unique and impulsive depiction of the horrors of the slave trade. The ship is seen in the distance with desperate human forms scattered in the volatile sea. This atrocity and aggression is shown through his colour choices, which don't represent a realistic depiction of the ocean, but rather an emotional and symbolic proclamation of the horrific act. At the time many artists of the time were enrolled in the abolishment of the slave trade, like Johann Moritz Rugendas and Francois Biard.
Great detail is given to blending and unifying the canvas. No one section is isolated, but rather working together in a symphony of movement. Looking forward, Turner paved the way for the Impressionists by breaking away from formulaic traditions (Butlin and Chamot, 2018). This is firstly noted in his use of vibrant colour, but also in the great sense of movement created on the image. |
Though Turner strayed away from the preceding Neo-classical ideas, he has still made use of natural and real subject matter. It is significant that both the Classical and Romantic movement still kept to using real subject matter, however, it is the ideal their depicting that sets them apart. The Classical ideal is one where society is orderly and follows norms, while the Romantic ideal envisages what is beyond, showing the adaptability of man.
I am personally quite drawn to Turner's atmospheric style. It is easy to find paintings that are good because of their technique or precision, but find works that truly move you are more rare, and this is where Turner has found a wonderful balance.
Detailed Observation
Narrative Art
Narrative art is art that tells a story. Most art leading up to the 20th century depicted images related to well know religious tales, myths or events. They were recognizable to the audience and usually well known. These later developed into depictions of everyday life and activities, which have become useful historical tools for understanding cultures or specific places and times in history. Modern art started moving away from direct narrative depictions as cues or references to current subject matter became more subtle or suggestive.
Narrative art is art that tells a story. Most art leading up to the 20th century depicted images related to well know religious tales, myths or events. They were recognizable to the audience and usually well known. These later developed into depictions of everyday life and activities, which have become useful historical tools for understanding cultures or specific places and times in history. Modern art started moving away from direct narrative depictions as cues or references to current subject matter became more subtle or suggestive.
Charles Landseer
Landseer was an English painter who favored narrative images that dealt with history and common themes of the time. During 1825 and 1826 he spent his time in Brazil making hundreds of drawings during Brazil's negotiations to become independent of Portugal. Many of these drawings are set around the mule train, like Interior of a Brazilian Rancho in the Province of Santo Paulo. Here we see a wealthy, well clad merchant in the foreground, taking a rest on a chest. Behind him a black man takes care of the saddle. His clothing appears more like a uniform. The other men in the background are likely laborers who are helping with merchandise, as they are not fully clothed. Landseer is clearly showing the differences in the classes and giving us a glimpse into life along the mule train. |
Gustave Courbet
In France, Courbet also challenged the conventions of history painting by painting contemporary bourgeois life with unflattering realism. He was concerned with much of the social events of his times and used his work to highlight those that are overlooked, like his fellow country folk. He often depicted events that would be considered minor in the realms of history and depicted them as grand historical moments, like in A Burial at Ornans, where he makes oriental figures appear significant and in an heroic scale, traditionally reserved for religious paintings. His method of applying paint thickly and in broken flecks and slabs, were first considered un-academic, but these stylistic innovations were later admired and promoted by modernist painters.
In France, Courbet also challenged the conventions of history painting by painting contemporary bourgeois life with unflattering realism. He was concerned with much of the social events of his times and used his work to highlight those that are overlooked, like his fellow country folk. He often depicted events that would be considered minor in the realms of history and depicted them as grand historical moments, like in A Burial at Ornans, where he makes oriental figures appear significant and in an heroic scale, traditionally reserved for religious paintings. His method of applying paint thickly and in broken flecks and slabs, were first considered un-academic, but these stylistic innovations were later admired and promoted by modernist painters.
Research Point
The paintings of Petrus Christus (c. 1410/1420 – 1475/1476) are marked by his innovative use of linear perspective. His backgrounds are highly detailed and evocative of the architecture that surrounded him in the Netherlands. Try de-coding a painting by Petrus Christus in terms of working out how he made his linear perspective work.
analysis
Historical Context
During the 15th Century the church was still a prominent patron to the arts and used religious paintings to adorn their chapels and cathedrals. They were often meant to help educate the public by sharing topics of faith. The Annunciation is a greatly celebrated and revered moment in Christendom, when Gabriel, the messenger of God appears to Mary announcing her divine selection to be the mother of Jesus. Mary, who was a virgin would conceive through the Holy spirit, making this a holy and miraculous birth. Her virginity is central to Christian doctrine, as it elevates Jesus from being merely a man, but rather the 'Son of God'. This scene has been depicted by many painters, including El Greco, Koninck, Murillo, Schröder and Paolo de Matteis to name a few. Materials The painting is oil on wood panel and measures 78.7 x 65.7 cm. This panel is merely a part of a greater piece, so it is likely that it was painted on wood panels to make them easier to place and fix together on the church walls. It is currently displayed in the MET Museum Composition During the 15th Century artists were exploring and learning how to represent space on the canvas. The preceding Gothic art was often represented in flat pleins with little depth or realistic depiction. Renaissance painters used mathematics and paint manipulation in order to create a realistic receding space, the way the eye would see it. Christus' Annunciation painting typifies this growing trend by incorporating a various techniques. |
1. Linear Perspective
By using an identified vanishing point, the artist is able to create a receding space. I this painting the artist has also made use of symmetry in the alignment of the interior which forms a well balanced frame around the subjects in the foreground.
2. Aerial Perspective
He has made use of varied colour vibrancy to distinguish the Foreground, Middleground and Background.
3. Light and Shadow
The balance of light and shadow is another tool that helps to create depth. By considering the source of the light it helps to provide the image with direction. Once again we notice how the use of light is sharper in the foreground and becomes less so towards the background.
4. Foreshortening
The study of Anatomy was also of great importance to Renaissance artists and help them create more accurate depictions of the human form. Foreshortening is a method of creating perspective in the human form, as body parts appear smaller. This is particularity noticeable when looking at Gabriel's fore arms.
By using an identified vanishing point, the artist is able to create a receding space. I this painting the artist has also made use of symmetry in the alignment of the interior which forms a well balanced frame around the subjects in the foreground.
2. Aerial Perspective
He has made use of varied colour vibrancy to distinguish the Foreground, Middleground and Background.
3. Light and Shadow
The balance of light and shadow is another tool that helps to create depth. By considering the source of the light it helps to provide the image with direction. Once again we notice how the use of light is sharper in the foreground and becomes less so towards the background.
4. Foreshortening
The study of Anatomy was also of great importance to Renaissance artists and help them create more accurate depictions of the human form. Foreshortening is a method of creating perspective in the human form, as body parts appear smaller. This is particularity noticeable when looking at Gabriel's fore arms.
Colour
The painting overall has a brown/orange undertone, keeping the feeling earthy, likely as he wanted to mimic the architecture of the time. It is also worth noting that Christus has depicted Mary in red, where many others would have her wearing white, to symbolize her virginity. The red could be a foreshadowing of the blood of Christ being what saves human kind and that she was the mother who bore that child with the life-giving blood.
Process
Infrared has revealed the Christus made use of detailed under paintings. These also highlight his growing technical skill in dealing with linear perspective (Meagher, 2008)
The painting overall has a brown/orange undertone, keeping the feeling earthy, likely as he wanted to mimic the architecture of the time. It is also worth noting that Christus has depicted Mary in red, where many others would have her wearing white, to symbolize her virginity. The red could be a foreshadowing of the blood of Christ being what saves human kind and that she was the mother who bore that child with the life-giving blood.
Process
Infrared has revealed the Christus made use of detailed under paintings. These also highlight his growing technical skill in dealing with linear perspective (Meagher, 2008)
Figures
Do some research on Anthony van Dyck (1599 - 1641) on the Tate and Met Museum websites; also check out Oxford Art Online (link on the OCA student site) and search YouTube for interesting additional information, especially for information on van Dyck’s methods.
Some techniques favored by van Dyck:
- Working on wood panel, this was apparently smoother and allowed for clean finishes.
- Working on a coloured ground, usually of a lighter earthy nature, not too dark. (red or brown ochre diluted with drying oil)
- He favored a prime canvas as this became popular at the time.
- The use of free and open brushwork which allows glimpses of underpaints.
- A fluid dark paint was used to create an underdrawing. (charcoal or bone black)
- Outlines were often reinforced.
- He generally mixed pigments and built op his paintings with multiple layers.
Reference: National Gallery Technical Bulletin Volume 20, 1999
Some techniques favored by van Dyck:
- Working on wood panel, this was apparently smoother and allowed for clean finishes.
- Working on a coloured ground, usually of a lighter earthy nature, not too dark. (red or brown ochre diluted with drying oil)
- He favored a prime canvas as this became popular at the time.
- The use of free and open brushwork which allows glimpses of underpaints.
- A fluid dark paint was used to create an underdrawing. (charcoal or bone black)
- Outlines were often reinforced.
- He generally mixed pigments and built op his paintings with multiple layers.
Reference: National Gallery Technical Bulletin Volume 20, 1999
Dutch artist Jan Vermeer (1632 - 1675) is renowned for his dramatically lit domestic settings. Think about how you can manipulate lighting in your own compositions, try using artificial light sources to create highly contrasted scenes.
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres
He was another skilled draughtsman. His nudes were meticulously painted to a high finish and he was a defender of Classicism. During the time of Ingres, the French Academies controlled the expectations of art. A painter had to sketch and observe classical figures for years before being allowed to even pick up a brush. According to the Academy, paintings should represent a high intellect, which means it should be well planned, considerate and of a high moral standing. This meant that figures were posed and classical positions with idealized anatomy, often devoid of character or flaw. Ingres was well known for his portraits and in particular began painting bathers while living in Rome.Like the Bather of Calpincon, 1808 (left). As you can tell, crisp realism and idealism was the order of Classical/ Neo-classical art. Her placement is tasteful and sophisticated through the use of soft, muted colours and contrasting light. |
Ingres himself later started shifting his work towards romanticism, as ca seen in his painting La Grande Odalisque, 1814 (right). Proportions are no longer idealized or correct. Colours also appear more vibrant, and the subject matter has also taken a shift. The woman represents a concubine in a sultan's harem. Her gaze is also direct and erotic towards the viewer. |
Research Point
Look at Australian cave and rock art. Some are thought to be more than 40,000 years old. The works are highly symbolic and depict the Aboriginal people’s understanding of cosmology. Similar symbols are common to all paintings - dots, circles and lines - but the specific meaning of each is relatively unknown and can be interpreted in numerous ways. It is therefore specific and universal at the same time. Why not try to make your own pigment and create a symbolic pattern painting using an implement other than a brush?
I did some research on primitive art as part of my practical exploration, which can found here.
I did some research on primitive art as part of my practical exploration, which can found here.
Research Point
For a thorough span of art history from 500 AD to the present, see Link 10 and search for Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. This rich resource positions art in different but linked contexts – geographical, political and cultural – and in so doing offers a grounding for the work that helps us understand why it is the way it is. For example, in relation to Baroque, we can more easily visualise this distinctive style from the description of its historical context.
I was not able to get a hold of this book, but I looked at two different books that created a timeline of world art history.
The first:
A World History of Art, Revised 7th Edition by Hugh Honour and John Flemming, 2009.
This book begins the timeline 40 000 BC and unpacks significant moments in Art up to the 20th Century and beyond. Its 22 chapters focusses on movements, artists, artistic game changers and significant events. Unlike other art history books, it does not delve as deeply in to the context of each artist or geographical placement, but rather on the art pieces themselves. The focus is on looking at the work and the impact individual pieces had on the progression and development of art. I had to study this book as part of my History of Art course and particularly liked how they linked the works of artists to preceding or following works. It helps you to understand how artists are influenced and inspired by the works of others.
The Second:
Art in Time, A World History of Styles and Movements, Phaidon, 2014
What is interesting about this book is that unlike other Art History books, it begins from our current technological century and works it way backwards in time. In the preface it is noted that they took this approach to show how art is woven an moving freely across disciplines and thus not crated in a vacuum. The timeline is broken into 9 chapters, or eras where the different movements and styles are described, considering the significant influences, artists and works that were a result of them. The book does not provide an in depth look at artists or pieces, but rather aims to provide a context for how (why) art changed and developed.
The two books actually work well together and providing a bit more breadth in how the geography, politics, environment and social events shaped art and the way we view it. What is noticeable from both books is that there are certain key artists that are truly representative of a particular movement or time in history. Though Art in Time did have a broader perspective on 20th century art, highlighting artists and work which were not mentioned or shown in A World History of Art.
Of course these are not the only books I have used (read), as you can see from my research bibliography in Project 1.
The first:
A World History of Art, Revised 7th Edition by Hugh Honour and John Flemming, 2009.
This book begins the timeline 40 000 BC and unpacks significant moments in Art up to the 20th Century and beyond. Its 22 chapters focusses on movements, artists, artistic game changers and significant events. Unlike other art history books, it does not delve as deeply in to the context of each artist or geographical placement, but rather on the art pieces themselves. The focus is on looking at the work and the impact individual pieces had on the progression and development of art. I had to study this book as part of my History of Art course and particularly liked how they linked the works of artists to preceding or following works. It helps you to understand how artists are influenced and inspired by the works of others.
The Second:
Art in Time, A World History of Styles and Movements, Phaidon, 2014
What is interesting about this book is that unlike other Art History books, it begins from our current technological century and works it way backwards in time. In the preface it is noted that they took this approach to show how art is woven an moving freely across disciplines and thus not crated in a vacuum. The timeline is broken into 9 chapters, or eras where the different movements and styles are described, considering the significant influences, artists and works that were a result of them. The book does not provide an in depth look at artists or pieces, but rather aims to provide a context for how (why) art changed and developed.
The two books actually work well together and providing a bit more breadth in how the geography, politics, environment and social events shaped art and the way we view it. What is noticeable from both books is that there are certain key artists that are truly representative of a particular movement or time in history. Though Art in Time did have a broader perspective on 20th century art, highlighting artists and work which were not mentioned or shown in A World History of Art.
Of course these are not the only books I have used (read), as you can see from my research bibliography in Project 1.
works cited
Butlin, R.M. and Chamot, R. (2018) J.M.W Turner [online] At: https://www.britannica.com/biography/J-M-W-Turner (Accessed on 5 September 2018)
Meagher, J. (2008) Petrus Christus [online] At: https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/petr/hd_petr.htm (Accessed on 6 September 2018)
Philosophy Basics (2018) Romanticism [online] At: https://www.philosophybasics.com/movements_romanticism.html (Accessed on 5 September 2018)
Meagher, J. (2008) Petrus Christus [online] At: https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/petr/hd_petr.htm (Accessed on 6 September 2018)
Philosophy Basics (2018) Romanticism [online] At: https://www.philosophybasics.com/movements_romanticism.html (Accessed on 5 September 2018)