Introduction
In this part we will be exploring nearly three centuries of European art.
The beginnings of the Italian Renaissance
The Renaissance is the time period in European history form the 14th to 17th century. It means re-birth and it is characterized by a rising interest in Classical scholarship and values. It is the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and Modern History. It was a time of discovery innovation and exploration that began in Florence. It was a hub of humanist scholarship and artistic production, due largely to the funding of the powerful Medici family. It is best expressed by a movement most prevalent during the 15th century called Humanism; a variety of beliefs, methods and philosophies that centers around the human realm. They were concerned with problems of the here and now rather then the hereafter. The had a great affect on art as they created absolute structures by which cultural and human activities could be judged.
Painting, sculpture and architecture was almost always made at the request of a patron. These could be a king, pope, duke, wealthy citizens, a religious fraternity, a guild or a civic authority. This changed the status of artists, as they didn't need to sell their art, the patrons came to them. Further changes are seen in how they artist were starting to gain less of a reputation as craftsman, but also as intellectuals as they continually had to study geometry, philosophy, medicine and history in order to compose works and perfect their skills. Patronage also began to reflect the skill, time and materials of the artist, meaning the well known and sought after artist could actually become wealthy, including sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti, the painter Andrea Mategna and architect Raphael. At the start of the Renaissance the patron controlled every aspect of the work of art, but as the status of artists grew, they became more independent. This further lead to artists traveling and studying abroad, further breaking with purely local traditions. Renaissance artists were well aware of the difference in their work compared to the Medieval and Gothic artists that preceded them.
Architecture
The architects of the Italian Renaissance sought their main inspiration from Greek and Roman architecture - making liberal use of Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders, combining classicism with the new principles of Humanism. Architects found a harmony between human proportions and buildings which resulted in clear and easy to comprehended spaces, different form the complex Gothic designs. Renaissance style also became more decorative and ornamental, with a widespread use of statuary, domes, and cupolas.The church still greatly influenced the arts which meant that many projects were cathedrals, basilicas, churches, chapels, sacristies, baptisteries, temples and tombs, Renaissance architects also designed a wide range of secular structures, such as palaces, villas, libraries, hospitals, piazzas, fountains, and bridges.
Brunelleschi
Filippo Brunelleschi, 1377-1446, was an architect and engineer who was one of the pioneers of early architecture in the early Renaissance. He was praised for his engineering skill and his revival of antique architectural forms. He is the first architect who did not serve as an apprentice. He rejected Gothic style and returned to the Classical use of the Roman column, the round arch and the rectangular window. He is also credited with the invention of linear perspective.
The Renaissance is the time period in European history form the 14th to 17th century. It means re-birth and it is characterized by a rising interest in Classical scholarship and values. It is the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and Modern History. It was a time of discovery innovation and exploration that began in Florence. It was a hub of humanist scholarship and artistic production, due largely to the funding of the powerful Medici family. It is best expressed by a movement most prevalent during the 15th century called Humanism; a variety of beliefs, methods and philosophies that centers around the human realm. They were concerned with problems of the here and now rather then the hereafter. The had a great affect on art as they created absolute structures by which cultural and human activities could be judged.
Painting, sculpture and architecture was almost always made at the request of a patron. These could be a king, pope, duke, wealthy citizens, a religious fraternity, a guild or a civic authority. This changed the status of artists, as they didn't need to sell their art, the patrons came to them. Further changes are seen in how they artist were starting to gain less of a reputation as craftsman, but also as intellectuals as they continually had to study geometry, philosophy, medicine and history in order to compose works and perfect their skills. Patronage also began to reflect the skill, time and materials of the artist, meaning the well known and sought after artist could actually become wealthy, including sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti, the painter Andrea Mategna and architect Raphael. At the start of the Renaissance the patron controlled every aspect of the work of art, but as the status of artists grew, they became more independent. This further lead to artists traveling and studying abroad, further breaking with purely local traditions. Renaissance artists were well aware of the difference in their work compared to the Medieval and Gothic artists that preceded them.
Architecture
The architects of the Italian Renaissance sought their main inspiration from Greek and Roman architecture - making liberal use of Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders, combining classicism with the new principles of Humanism. Architects found a harmony between human proportions and buildings which resulted in clear and easy to comprehended spaces, different form the complex Gothic designs. Renaissance style also became more decorative and ornamental, with a widespread use of statuary, domes, and cupolas.The church still greatly influenced the arts which meant that many projects were cathedrals, basilicas, churches, chapels, sacristies, baptisteries, temples and tombs, Renaissance architects also designed a wide range of secular structures, such as palaces, villas, libraries, hospitals, piazzas, fountains, and bridges.
Brunelleschi
Filippo Brunelleschi, 1377-1446, was an architect and engineer who was one of the pioneers of early architecture in the early Renaissance. He was praised for his engineering skill and his revival of antique architectural forms. He is the first architect who did not serve as an apprentice. He rejected Gothic style and returned to the Classical use of the Roman column, the round arch and the rectangular window. He is also credited with the invention of linear perspective.
Florence commissioned the build of the cathedral, but there was much disappointment as architects could not figure out how to construct the dome. They set up a contest for the most ideal dome design. Brunelleschi, was one among many designers and proposed that he would build not one but two domes, one nested inside the other, without elaborate and expensive scaffolding. You can read more about the dome here.
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Brunelleschi was commissioned to build this i 1421 and it is often cited as the first Renaissance building.This building is a revival of the classical style.There is an emphasis on the horizontal because the building is longer than it is tall. There are nine rounded arches that make up an elegant colonnaded facade. It is a pure geometrical space with Byzantine influences in its design.
Brunelleschi is said to have visited Rome, spending his time measuring the ancient Roman buildings. |
His groundbreaking work with perspective were quickly taken up by other artist and became of the main characteristics of Renaissance art. Massaccio is an artist most notably inspired by Brunellschi. It is evident in his fresco, Holy Trinity (1425) and Tribute Money (1427). It also influenced sculptors like Ghiberti, which can be seen in the great depths of his sculpures on the bronze baptistery doors in Florence, Porte del Paradiso (1424-52).
Alberti
Leone Battista Alberti was a moralist, lawyer, poet, playwright, musician, mathematician, scientist, painter, sculptor, architect and theorist, a true Renaissance man. "No one did more to enhance the status of the visual arts and, consequently of artists. To him we owe the basic idea of an all-embracing Renaissance style" (WHA: 431). Through his studies of ancient practice he created a rational theory of beauty based on the laws of nature. Some of his most influential contributions was his use of decorative columns, which provided little support, and combining the with architraves. He was also not afraid to promote his own professional status as a designer. He published ten volumes on architecture.
You can read an interesting article about art an nature here.
Leone Battista Alberti was a moralist, lawyer, poet, playwright, musician, mathematician, scientist, painter, sculptor, architect and theorist, a true Renaissance man. "No one did more to enhance the status of the visual arts and, consequently of artists. To him we owe the basic idea of an all-embracing Renaissance style" (WHA: 431). Through his studies of ancient practice he created a rational theory of beauty based on the laws of nature. Some of his most influential contributions was his use of decorative columns, which provided little support, and combining the with architraves. He was also not afraid to promote his own professional status as a designer. He published ten volumes on architecture.
You can read an interesting article about art an nature here.
Alberti was asked by Malatesta , lord of Rimini to transform the building and make it into a kind of personal mausoleum for him and his lover. It is a Roman ispired facade built with marble. It has the triumphal arch and the side wall are pierced with deep arched niches.
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The majestic facade shows an imaginative combination of a Classical pedimented temple front and an arch of triumph. He used pilasters instead of columns. The harmonious design is completely proportioned within a square.
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Sculpture
In the 15th century works became categorized by naturalism and individualism and the reemergence of classical subjects and forms. In sculpture, this was evident in the increase of contemporary subjects, together with a more naturalistic handling of proportions, drapery, anatomy, and perspective.
Precious metals, like gold and silver, were used less in sculpture than in the preceding Gothic period, however, bronze became increasingly popular. The use of Marble also continued to grow, as sculptors were able to create more refined and detailed works with it. Terracotta was another alternative for those who were not as wealthy.
In the 15th century works became categorized by naturalism and individualism and the reemergence of classical subjects and forms. In sculpture, this was evident in the increase of contemporary subjects, together with a more naturalistic handling of proportions, drapery, anatomy, and perspective.
Precious metals, like gold and silver, were used less in sculpture than in the preceding Gothic period, however, bronze became increasingly popular. The use of Marble also continued to grow, as sculptors were able to create more refined and detailed works with it. Terracotta was another alternative for those who were not as wealthy.
Donatello
Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi began working as an assistant for Ghiberti, and was later known as one of the greatest sculptors of the 15th century. He was deeply inspired by ancient visual examples and worked primarily in bronze and marble. "All of his work done alone shows an unorthodox ornamental vocabulary drawn from both Classical and medieval sources and an un-Brunelleschian tendency to blur the distinction between the architectural and the sculptural elements (Britannica: Janson, 2017)
Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi began working as an assistant for Ghiberti, and was later known as one of the greatest sculptors of the 15th century. He was deeply inspired by ancient visual examples and worked primarily in bronze and marble. "All of his work done alone shows an unorthodox ornamental vocabulary drawn from both Classical and medieval sources and an un-Brunelleschian tendency to blur the distinction between the architectural and the sculptural elements (Britannica: Janson, 2017)
This bronze statue was one of the first frees standing nudes since ancient times. It was a revolutionary achievement. David is not shown as a full grown man with rippling mussels. Many also wonder why he is wearing a hat and boots. He is presented in a classic counterpoise with his body appearing more eloquent than his face.
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This was his largest free standing work. It's scale and dignity is impressive. He fuses realism with idealism to pay honor to a great servant of the Venetian public. He is presented with great character and strength and the use of bronze really highlights this.
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This was one of his first statues, meant as decoration for the guild’s niche in the building of Orsanmichele. It has been carved with marble and is represented in a strong and confident pose. Both feet planted firmly while grasping his shield. Donatello works with a style of soft and graceful lines.
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Other highly revered sculptors during the Renaissance was Lorenzo Ghiberti, Antonio del Pollaiuolo and Luca della Robbia.
Painting
In keeping with the growing trend of Humanism, paintings became more realistic and life-like. Figures were shown with greater details, emotions and proportions. Perspective was used to create depth. This combined with chiaroscuro meant that figures were occupying the space, creating a more believable appearance. There was still a sense of idealism as many compositions subscribed to symbols of beauty. Science, anatomy and mathematics became important tools for artist in their strive to create ideal and realistic images. Many turned to nature to study what makes perfect proportions and compositions.
Florence was the birthplace of the Renaissance and contributed greatly to the arts, however, Flanders also contributed greatly to Western art. Firstly the development of easel or panel painting and secondly the development of oils. This enabled artists to build images slowly, thus creating works with more vibrancy and precision.
In keeping with the growing trend of Humanism, paintings became more realistic and life-like. Figures were shown with greater details, emotions and proportions. Perspective was used to create depth. This combined with chiaroscuro meant that figures were occupying the space, creating a more believable appearance. There was still a sense of idealism as many compositions subscribed to symbols of beauty. Science, anatomy and mathematics became important tools for artist in their strive to create ideal and realistic images. Many turned to nature to study what makes perfect proportions and compositions.
Florence was the birthplace of the Renaissance and contributed greatly to the arts, however, Flanders also contributed greatly to Western art. Firstly the development of easel or panel painting and secondly the development of oils. This enabled artists to build images slowly, thus creating works with more vibrancy and precision.
Religious Painting
The church was still a prominent feature in society, despite the rise of Humanism. They were often patrons of the arts, commissioning sculptures and paintings to adorn their chapels and cathedrals. Paintings and statues depicted religious images, either of biblical figures or saints. These were often used to help the uneducated to learn scripture and served as a visual reminder to all, a way to help them connect personally with history. Churches were demanding more memorable, emotional and devotional images. Some of the well regarded religious painters during the 15th century was Fra Angelico, Paolo Uccello and Piero della Francesca.
The church was still a prominent feature in society, despite the rise of Humanism. They were often patrons of the arts, commissioning sculptures and paintings to adorn their chapels and cathedrals. Paintings and statues depicted religious images, either of biblical figures or saints. These were often used to help the uneducated to learn scripture and served as a visual reminder to all, a way to help them connect personally with history. Churches were demanding more memorable, emotional and devotional images. Some of the well regarded religious painters during the 15th century was Fra Angelico, Paolo Uccello and Piero della Francesca.
He is one of the greatest 15th-century painters, whose works embody a serene religious attitude and reflect a strong Classical influence. Many of his works were altarpieces and frescoes created for the church. The annunciation has a vibrant luminosity which seems to spiritualize the figures. His images make great use of realism and perspective.
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Uccello combined Gothic style with heroic Renaissance style. He was obsessed with representing solids in space. The painting is strong and mysterious through its combination of complex compositions and use of multiple perspectives. He has displayed the figures with great scientific accuracy, though their placement gives a great sense of expression and illusion. It was his new means of rendering perspective that made him a major contributor of the Renaissance style.
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Francesca was a disciplined painter highly preoccupied with mathematics and its pictoral application. He used the 'golden section' to find harmony in his images. This is an altarpiece was in the chapel of Saint John the Baptist in the Camaldolese abbey.
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Jan Van Eyk
He was a Netherlandish painter who perfect the technique of oil painting by mirroring the textures, light, and spatial effects of nature and the realism of his work was admired by humanist Cyriacus D’Ancona. He believed that nature embodied God, so he filled his paintings with religious symbols disguised as everyday objects.
He was a Netherlandish painter who perfect the technique of oil painting by mirroring the textures, light, and spatial effects of nature and the realism of his work was admired by humanist Cyriacus D’Ancona. He believed that nature embodied God, so he filled his paintings with religious symbols disguised as everyday objects.
One of his greatest works is Ghent Altarpiece also known as The Adoration of the Mystic Lamb. The complete work consists of 20 panels, painted in oil and situated in St. Bavo’s Cathedral, Ghent, Belgium. He painted it with his brother Hubert. It is filled with religious meaning and mostly tells the tale of redemption. Above we see Christ at the center with the Virgin and John The Baptist by his side, Angels making music and Adam an Eve on the outskirts. Below in the center is the story of sacrifice as we see the lamb on the altar. The scene is set in a beautiful lush meadow, a vision of paradise, depicted with precision and vibrancy. The meaning would be explicit to a viewer and the brothers have succeeded in creating a beautiful visual language of scripture.
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This is a full-length double portrait, believed to depict the Italian merchant Giovanni di Nicolao Arnolfini and his wife. This painting is widely revered for it's expansion of space and in particular the use of a mirror to create further depth. Their is great iconography in the image and the detail of the room and figures is incredibly convincing.
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Van Eyk also had an amazing talent in depicting space. Madonna of Chancellor Rolin is a great example of this. The room feels real and is presented with depth and luminosity. His use of aerial perspective to create a landscape vanishing towards the horizon adds to the volume and realism of this scene.
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Secular Painting
Though all throughout Europe the figurative arts remained dominantly religious, there was a rise in secular paintings, including portraiture and other mythological imagery not only depicting Christendom. As it was not a great time of economic wealth, many merchant and bankers took to investing in the arts, as this had now become highly revered. Fortunately the simplistic and classical style of Renaissance art made materials more affordable than during the elaborate Gothic movement. Paint and equipment was also inexpensive and easily available, unlike other scarce metals and materials. But there was now a new cost to consider; the skill and reputation of the artist. The lack in precious metals also meant that pottery and small sculptures relied on their immaculate painting details to remain desirable. The cassone, in particular was a popular furniture item. A wooden chest most elaborately decorated, often with a coat of arms or mythological creatures.
Botticelli
Sandro Botticelli trained under Filippo Lippi and developed a graceful style, using linear perspective to depict form and working with paler hues. His works are often said to epitomize the spirit of the Renaissance. Not necessarily due to his techniques, but rather his ability to push boundaries in composition and subject matter.
Though all throughout Europe the figurative arts remained dominantly religious, there was a rise in secular paintings, including portraiture and other mythological imagery not only depicting Christendom. As it was not a great time of economic wealth, many merchant and bankers took to investing in the arts, as this had now become highly revered. Fortunately the simplistic and classical style of Renaissance art made materials more affordable than during the elaborate Gothic movement. Paint and equipment was also inexpensive and easily available, unlike other scarce metals and materials. But there was now a new cost to consider; the skill and reputation of the artist. The lack in precious metals also meant that pottery and small sculptures relied on their immaculate painting details to remain desirable. The cassone, in particular was a popular furniture item. A wooden chest most elaborately decorated, often with a coat of arms or mythological creatures.
Botticelli
Sandro Botticelli trained under Filippo Lippi and developed a graceful style, using linear perspective to depict form and working with paler hues. His works are often said to epitomize the spirit of the Renaissance. Not necessarily due to his techniques, but rather his ability to push boundaries in composition and subject matter.
Homer wrote of the birth of Venus; after Venus was born, she rode on a seashell and sea foam to the island of Cythera. There is a soft elegance to how she and the other figures are depicted, which is especially noticeable in the representation of their hair. Her nudity also represents a barrier that Botticelli was breaking.
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This image contains a mixture of astrology, Classical mythology and Christian morality.It features Venus, who represents love, beauty and prosperity, along with Cupid, Mercury, Graces, Flora, Chloris and Zephyr. This is not any specific scene from mythology. It is partly symbolic and idyllic in its narrative.
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Portraiture
Portraiture had a resurgence in Renaissance Europe. It is not only an artists' depiction of an individuals physical features, but also a way of capturing their presence, essence or character. Portraiture dates back to Greek and Roman times, where we found life-like depictions in sculpture and on coins. During the Renaissance revival of portraiture however, we see new interests in establishing identity and representing the every day life of individuals. An artist that is particularly well known for his work in portraiture is Rogier van der Wyden. He was an Early Netherlandish painter who also created religious works. As can been seen in the portraits below, he depicts figures in a delicate and exquisite way. He is best know for his ability to convey expression while not making details to intricate.
Portraiture had a resurgence in Renaissance Europe. It is not only an artists' depiction of an individuals physical features, but also a way of capturing their presence, essence or character. Portraiture dates back to Greek and Roman times, where we found life-like depictions in sculpture and on coins. During the Renaissance revival of portraiture however, we see new interests in establishing identity and representing the every day life of individuals. An artist that is particularly well known for his work in portraiture is Rogier van der Wyden. He was an Early Netherlandish painter who also created religious works. As can been seen in the portraits below, he depicts figures in a delicate and exquisite way. He is best know for his ability to convey expression while not making details to intricate.
A good example of the skilful rendering of appearances is Rogier van der Weyden’s wonderful portrayal of the transparency of a woman’s headdress in his Portrait of a Lady. His use of a three-quarter profile, in contrast to the Italian full-profile portraits which derived from Roman coins, pushes the figure out of the picture into the real
space inhabited by the viewer.
space inhabited by the viewer.
The Venetian Synthesis
The Venetian state was a stable, illiberal government who provided well for their citizens. It is a city of pageant, carnivals and festivals. It s dreamy architecture and winding canals have long captivated artists who try and capture its magic. Venice's leading families vied with each other to build the grandest palaces and support the work of the greatest and most talented artists like Titian.
The Venetian state was a stable, illiberal government who provided well for their citizens. It is a city of pageant, carnivals and festivals. It s dreamy architecture and winding canals have long captivated artists who try and capture its magic. Venice's leading families vied with each other to build the grandest palaces and support the work of the greatest and most talented artists like Titian.
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Titian
One of the most reputable artists during the Italian Renaissance. He was a master in all aspects of art, creating religious works, mythological works, portraiture and secular images. His works are presented with pageantry and poetic charm. His work set the standard for physical beauty and he had the incredible ability of penetrating human character in his portraits.
In The Rape of Europa, Europa is carried off, arms and legs flying, on the back of Jupiter in the form of a garlanded white bull. All elements in this oblique composition add a sense of movement to it. The expanse of the horizon with the contrasting blues and oranges representing sea and sky. The luminosity of the the figures' skin and their presence in the surrounding space.
One of the most reputable artists during the Italian Renaissance. He was a master in all aspects of art, creating religious works, mythological works, portraiture and secular images. His works are presented with pageantry and poetic charm. His work set the standard for physical beauty and he had the incredible ability of penetrating human character in his portraits.
In The Rape of Europa, Europa is carried off, arms and legs flying, on the back of Jupiter in the form of a garlanded white bull. All elements in this oblique composition add a sense of movement to it. The expanse of the horizon with the contrasting blues and oranges representing sea and sky. The luminosity of the the figures' skin and their presence in the surrounding space.
Andrea Mantegna
Mantegna produced intricate and idealistic works. His painting of St Sebastian uses perspective and detail to create spatial clarity. The landscape is naturalistic while the human figure is harmoniously proportioned and idealized. The Paduan artist lived in a period of frequent plagues; Sebastian was considered protector against the plague as having been shot through by arrows, and it was thought that plague spread abroad through the air. |
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Giovanni Bellini
A great Venetian artist who completed many religious works, in particualr altar pieces, but who also expanded his range with works that show a steady evolution from purely religious, narrative emphasis to a new naturalism of setting and landscape.
Madonna of the Meadow show how the landscape has become an essential part of the whole image. It represents tranquil meditation and reflects the mood of the central figures. They are not detached from the landscape, but part of it, The image is poetic and devotional. It evokes a worshipers sense of wonder and beauty in the Creation.
A great Venetian artist who completed many religious works, in particualr altar pieces, but who also expanded his range with works that show a steady evolution from purely religious, narrative emphasis to a new naturalism of setting and landscape.
Madonna of the Meadow show how the landscape has become an essential part of the whole image. It represents tranquil meditation and reflects the mood of the central figures. They are not detached from the landscape, but part of it, The image is poetic and devotional. It evokes a worshipers sense of wonder and beauty in the Creation.
International Humanism
Italy is referred to as playing the dominant role in the birth of the Renaissance and the development of European culture, however is was only the springboard for development. Its spread through the Western states gave rise to a new expression of Western culture. The inspiration of Humanism and the search for man's capacity provided an dynamic reformation. Artistic contacts between cities in Italy, like Florence, Siena and Venice, and those of Germany were ongoing during much of the 15th century. Italian artists brought with them the new ideas of Renaissance art and encouraged Northern artist to travel and study. The most significant German Renaissance artist is Albrecht Dürer especially known for his printmaking, engravings and numerous self portraits.
Italy is referred to as playing the dominant role in the birth of the Renaissance and the development of European culture, however is was only the springboard for development. Its spread through the Western states gave rise to a new expression of Western culture. The inspiration of Humanism and the search for man's capacity provided an dynamic reformation. Artistic contacts between cities in Italy, like Florence, Siena and Venice, and those of Germany were ongoing during much of the 15th century. Italian artists brought with them the new ideas of Renaissance art and encouraged Northern artist to travel and study. The most significant German Renaissance artist is Albrecht Dürer especially known for his printmaking, engravings and numerous self portraits.
Albrecht Durer
Dürer’s fascination with nature and the human form began in his early teens. Most of his sketches were of those around him, observation in nature and of course, himself. It was his restless intellectual curiosity that allowed him to develop his genius in a diversity of mediums, however painting, printmaking and theoretical work stood out most. Dürer himself referred to his talents as a God-given gift and exceptional.
Dürer’s fascination with nature and the human form began in his early teens. Most of his sketches were of those around him, observation in nature and of course, himself. It was his restless intellectual curiosity that allowed him to develop his genius in a diversity of mediums, however painting, printmaking and theoretical work stood out most. Dürer himself referred to his talents as a God-given gift and exceptional.
Durer truly perfected the art of engravings and printmaking. His work is presented with extremely fine detail and the gradation in colour and composition classifies him as a master.
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He was preoccupied with himself and with his status. In this portrait he portrays himself as Christ with an elegance and illumination that is unsurpassed. The self portraits are a way of delving into his own character and beliefs.
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From the Handbook: The Italian Renaissance
The early Italian Renaissance was a turning point in the history of western art. Works of famous artists like Giotto, through Masaccio, Michaelangelo and other fifteenth-century masters were documented by critic, Giorgio Vasari in his book, The Lives of the Artists (1550). In the fifteenth century there were far-reaching changes in European art, with a new emphasis on space, light, perspective, proportion and anatomy. In Italy there was a keen interest in the theoretical basis of representation.The High Renaissance in Italy is associated with many famous names in art, like the paintings of Raphael and Titian and the wide-ranging talents of Leonardo and Michelangelo.
Some terms to note
Fresco
This is a technique that was very popular for the production of large scale paintings i public places, for example the Sistine Chapel. The method is to paint with pigment on damp plaster, which becomes penetrated with the pigment; the pigment dries and hardens and solidifies with the plaster. It involved much planning, as paintings could not be reworked. Artists spent much time creating under-drawings to plan these large compositions.
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Tempera
Tempera was a forerunner of oil paint and involved mixing coloured pigment with a water-soluble binding medium, usually
egg yolk. Tempera was much more durable than fresco.
egg yolk. Tempera was much more durable than fresco.
Linear and aerial perspective
Aerial or atmospheric perspective is a different way of depicting receding space. Normally used in landscape painting, it refers to the fact that objects and features appear lighter and less detailed, and become more muted and blue in colour, as they recede into the middle and far distance.
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Linear perspective is a technique that allows you to create an illusion of space and depth on a flat piece of paper – in other words, to represent an image as it’s perceived by the eye. It was developed by Italian artists in the fifteenth century. Before that, artists had simply drawn foreground objects large and background objects small.
Allegory
Iconography is the term given to the study of meaning in art; sometimes the meaning is conveyed directly, sometimes by symbol or allegory.
Allegory is where characters, figures or events in a narrative are used to represent abstract ideas or principles. In School of Athens, Raphael uses a group of Greek thinkers and scientists to represent Philosophy, for example. These figures all lived at different times, but here they are gathered together under one roof. |
Exercise: Study some mythological subjects
Choose two or three paintings of a mythological subject and research the story behind these paintings. Where did the story originate, for example? Think about how the myths you’ve chosen could be harnessed to promote Christian values.
Find two paintings by different artists that represent the same mythological story and make notes in your learning log on the similarities and differences between them. Think about why the two artists may have made the different artistic choices
that they did. Do some drawings and sketches in your learning log.
that they did. Do some drawings and sketches in your learning log.
Above is a rough outline sketch of the famous scene between Adam and God painted by Michelangelo on the Sistine chapel ceiling. It is a great example of how religious art was became more focused on the individual connecting with God. On the right is Venus, the goddess of love, painted by Botticelli . There is such a softness in his portrayal of her, she feels untouchable yet close to reach at the same time. The air of mystery and mysticism around her is captivating.
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Painting 1: The Bacchanal of the Andrians by Titian
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The Bacchanal of the Adrians is part of a series of Roman mythological works commissioned by Alfonso I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, for his palace. They stem from a collecting of images written about by the Roman writer Philostratus (second century CE), called Imagines. Titian used these descriptions of other paintings to create this piece, but he also added his own colourful and dramatic flare.
The scene is set on the island of Andros, where the people await Bacchus. They are inebriated from a river of wine provided by Dionysis. Deities and mortals can be distinguished through their nudity or garments. The subject choice reflects the patron's hedonism as well as the prosperity of his Ferrarese countryside and the contentment of the people.
The image is decadent with detail. The joy of wine, relationships and celebrating form is evident as figures are presented in a fluid and harmonious way. He combines rich colourful expression with formal elegance through their positions. The relationship between gods and men are also highlighted, as we see the god of wine, the river god and the nymph participating in the fruits of the countryside. Titian called this type of picture a poesia; a poem meant to engage the viewer to interpret and meditate its meaning.
This scene would not only be pushing the boundaries of the raining religious subject matter at that time through is use of mythology, but also through its use of drunken behaviour and nudity. Christians would likely find the behaviour in this image offensive. The church may use this painting to remind people of sinful or heathen behaviour and that they should be avoiding it.
The scene is set on the island of Andros, where the people await Bacchus. They are inebriated from a river of wine provided by Dionysis. Deities and mortals can be distinguished through their nudity or garments. The subject choice reflects the patron's hedonism as well as the prosperity of his Ferrarese countryside and the contentment of the people.
The image is decadent with detail. The joy of wine, relationships and celebrating form is evident as figures are presented in a fluid and harmonious way. He combines rich colourful expression with formal elegance through their positions. The relationship between gods and men are also highlighted, as we see the god of wine, the river god and the nymph participating in the fruits of the countryside. Titian called this type of picture a poesia; a poem meant to engage the viewer to interpret and meditate its meaning.
This scene would not only be pushing the boundaries of the raining religious subject matter at that time through is use of mythology, but also through its use of drunken behaviour and nudity. Christians would likely find the behaviour in this image offensive. The church may use this painting to remind people of sinful or heathen behaviour and that they should be avoiding it.
Painting 2: Pallas and the Centaur by Sandro Botticelli
It was commissioned by Lorenzo de' Medici. the Medici family were great patrons of the arts and we see the the three interlinked rings patterned on the dress as a confirmation that it represents one of the Medici family.
This painting tells of Greek mythology and Botticelli has chosen to use quite a bare landscape in order to place the focus on the two figures. On the left, a centaur, which represents sensuality or lust, while the woman on the right represents the goddess Athena. She represents wisdom and peace, further evidenced by the olive branches rapped around her. She has grabbed the centaur by the hair and there is a sense that the next move would be to kick him out. There is a clear moral message her of how virtue can conquer over lust. Botticelli has stuck with his muted palette and uses the contrast of dark and light to present these figures in a soft and sensual manner, a contrast to their situation. Even though this image is based in Greek Mythology, the message of morality and conquering over evil would still be one that the church could advocate. A centaur would represent a being of magic, making him a beast in the church's eyes. The woman could also be symbolic of representing the church (as Mary would), showing how the church can conquer over evil. |
Comparing The Annunciation by Fra Angelico and Da Vinci
Context of The Annunciation
This is a greatly celebrated and revered moment in Christendom, when Gabriel, the messenger of God appears to Mary announcing her divine selection to be the mother of Jesus. Mary, who was a virgin would conceive through the Holy spirit, making this a holy and miraculous birth. Her virginity is central to Christian doctrine, as it elevates Jesus from being merely a man, but rather the 'Son of God'. This scene has been depicted by many painters, including El Greco, Koninck, Murillo, Schröder and Paolo de Matteis to name a few.
This is a greatly celebrated and revered moment in Christendom, when Gabriel, the messenger of God appears to Mary announcing her divine selection to be the mother of Jesus. Mary, who was a virgin would conceive through the Holy spirit, making this a holy and miraculous birth. Her virginity is central to Christian doctrine, as it elevates Jesus from being merely a man, but rather the 'Son of God'. This scene has been depicted by many painters, including El Greco, Koninck, Murillo, Schröder and Paolo de Matteis to name a few.
Background
Fra Angelico painted his fresco Annunciation for the north corridor of the San Marco convent, a Dominican convent in Florence which was financed by the Medici family. He spent most of his life in this space, observing the monks who lived in meditation and devotion, bringing the sacred scene of The Annunciation into their physical reality through this masterpiece. Da Vinci's Annunciation is believed to be his first major work, although historians say it was a collaboration between him and Leonardo's master, Andrea del Verrocchio. It was likely an altarpiece in the Convent of San Bartolomeo.
Composition
The scene has been kept simple and spare, presented in a less didactic way as it would have been to a lay church audience, as the monks know the story well. Compared to Da Vinci's Annunciation, which has additional symbolic features like the bible and sarcophagus. The fact that the surroundings are presented spare suits its convent setting.
For Fra Angelico the space and the figures are represented with a sense of linear perspective, but the figures appear too large for their surroundings. Da Vinci had a much crisper grasp of linear perspective and proportional composition. The background in Fra Angelico's work appears flat and apart from the figures in the interior scene. Da Vinci, by contrast, has created intricate and detailed surroundings. The landscape is lush and atmospheric. He also used aerial perspective to make the figures feel like part of a whole scene.
In both paintings the angel appears with knee bent, a sign of honor and homage to the future mother of God. The angel in Da Vinci's painting has one arm raised, which was a Florentine greeting. Both are conveying the angel in a way so as not to frighten Mary. In both paintings Mary is represented soft and humble. In Fra Angelico's version her posture and position portrays a sense of meditation, sheltered and set apart from the world, her mood and state feels more quiet and honoring as she is not surrounded by clutter, almost as though she was waiting o the Lord. Da Vinci's Mary is depicted reading scripture, showing her pious and dedication, also more commonly used in other versions of The Annunciation.
Light
Fra Angelico has created a well illuminated scene. It is also noticeable that the architecture used within the image, matches that of the convent, which makes this personal to its viewers. Though the main light source is on the left, the whole space seems to be lit similarly. We also don't see any cast shadows to provide the image with more depth or the figures with a greater sense of occupying the space. Da Vinci in contrast has used light and shadow with a beautiful harmony and intricate detail, especially visible in the drapery of Mary's dress. the detailed architecture and background also allows the light on the skin of the figures to be more luminous as it contrasts against the surroundings.
Style
Fra Angelico painting has a more shallow pre-Renaissance style. He has worked with muted colours and presented a relatively flat surface. Though his technique and composition is simplistic, the painting is engaging and provides a great sense of intimacy. Figures have lesser details or idealized expressions, which provide them with an additional sense of humility. Da Vinci painting is highly stylistic and detailed, from the details in the landscape to the drapery, to the expression and anatomic depiction of the figures. His work is poetic, using symbolism to capture the viewer and allow them to feel part of the scene. His use of chiaroscuro and linear perspective is exemplary, not only making the scene believable, but providing an atmosphere of truth and honour for the subject depicted.
As a sacred and well loved part of Christian belief, both these artists have succeeded in honoring their traditions. Believers will understand the imagery and find connection with the characters.
Fra Angelico painted his fresco Annunciation for the north corridor of the San Marco convent, a Dominican convent in Florence which was financed by the Medici family. He spent most of his life in this space, observing the monks who lived in meditation and devotion, bringing the sacred scene of The Annunciation into their physical reality through this masterpiece. Da Vinci's Annunciation is believed to be his first major work, although historians say it was a collaboration between him and Leonardo's master, Andrea del Verrocchio. It was likely an altarpiece in the Convent of San Bartolomeo.
Composition
The scene has been kept simple and spare, presented in a less didactic way as it would have been to a lay church audience, as the monks know the story well. Compared to Da Vinci's Annunciation, which has additional symbolic features like the bible and sarcophagus. The fact that the surroundings are presented spare suits its convent setting.
For Fra Angelico the space and the figures are represented with a sense of linear perspective, but the figures appear too large for their surroundings. Da Vinci had a much crisper grasp of linear perspective and proportional composition. The background in Fra Angelico's work appears flat and apart from the figures in the interior scene. Da Vinci, by contrast, has created intricate and detailed surroundings. The landscape is lush and atmospheric. He also used aerial perspective to make the figures feel like part of a whole scene.
In both paintings the angel appears with knee bent, a sign of honor and homage to the future mother of God. The angel in Da Vinci's painting has one arm raised, which was a Florentine greeting. Both are conveying the angel in a way so as not to frighten Mary. In both paintings Mary is represented soft and humble. In Fra Angelico's version her posture and position portrays a sense of meditation, sheltered and set apart from the world, her mood and state feels more quiet and honoring as she is not surrounded by clutter, almost as though she was waiting o the Lord. Da Vinci's Mary is depicted reading scripture, showing her pious and dedication, also more commonly used in other versions of The Annunciation.
Light
Fra Angelico has created a well illuminated scene. It is also noticeable that the architecture used within the image, matches that of the convent, which makes this personal to its viewers. Though the main light source is on the left, the whole space seems to be lit similarly. We also don't see any cast shadows to provide the image with more depth or the figures with a greater sense of occupying the space. Da Vinci in contrast has used light and shadow with a beautiful harmony and intricate detail, especially visible in the drapery of Mary's dress. the detailed architecture and background also allows the light on the skin of the figures to be more luminous as it contrasts against the surroundings.
Style
Fra Angelico painting has a more shallow pre-Renaissance style. He has worked with muted colours and presented a relatively flat surface. Though his technique and composition is simplistic, the painting is engaging and provides a great sense of intimacy. Figures have lesser details or idealized expressions, which provide them with an additional sense of humility. Da Vinci painting is highly stylistic and detailed, from the details in the landscape to the drapery, to the expression and anatomic depiction of the figures. His work is poetic, using symbolism to capture the viewer and allow them to feel part of the scene. His use of chiaroscuro and linear perspective is exemplary, not only making the scene believable, but providing an atmosphere of truth and honour for the subject depicted.
As a sacred and well loved part of Christian belief, both these artists have succeeded in honoring their traditions. Believers will understand the imagery and find connection with the characters.
From the Handbook: Religious and secular art
During the Italian Renaissance paintings and sculptures were commissioned for both religious and secular purposes. Artists were strictly limited in their interpretations of themes, though the role of art and the artist had changed. This use of art for self-aggrandisement was a growing trend. Some patrons even had portraits of family members incorporated into paintings of sacred subjects.
The Bardi chapel in the church of Santa Croce, Florence, was an overt demonstration of the importance of the banking family which had commissioned its decoration. Giotto produced a series of frescoes depicting events in the life of St Francis to decorate this chapel.
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Botticelli’s Adoration of the Magi, in the Uffizi, incorporates portraits of several of the Medici, despite the fact that it formed part of an altarpiece. Comparing the importance of this family to that of the saints.
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Moral stories weren’t restricted to religious narratives; in the fifteenth century the growth of humanism led to a new preoccupation with classical themes. For this the work of Botticelli and Rossellini are prime examples.
The design was highly symbolic, combining bothe Christian and secular elements. However, other than the image of Mary and the Child in the medallion on the tympanum, this monument lacks a good degree of religious significance. The sculptural architectonic framework and the triumphant-arch motif take a more classical secular approach.
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La Primavera incorporated elements of astrology, classical mythology and Christian morality, with the idea of ‘presenting a didactic lesson in a form that was outwardly attractive yet yielded its inner message only to the initiated, for mysteries were supposed to lose their almost magic power when they were revealed to the profane’ (WHA p.448).
The humanistic meaning of the work: Venus is the goodwill (the Humanitas), as she distinguishes the material (right) from the spiritual values (left). The Humanitas promotes the ideal of a positive man, confident in his abilities, and sensitive to the needs of others. |
There was also a new fusion of Christian art and classical elements, like Bernardo Rossellini’s tomb for the fifteenth-century Italian humanist Leonardo Bruni and Michelangelo’s statue of David. The enquiring spirit of the Renaissance can be found in the development of portraiture by artists such as Antonello da Messina and of landscapes and scenes of rich Venetian life by Giorgione and Veronese. In Florence it can be found in Masaccio’s interest in perspective, in Piero della Francesca’s use of the golden section and in Ucello’s drawing of complex spatial relationships. The search for knowledge
behind appearances is apparent in Leonardo’s fascination with anatomy, botany and engineering. It has its counterpart in the synthesis of Raphael’s stanze or Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel, which use complex iconography to link classical learning to Christian teachings and contemporary events.
behind appearances is apparent in Leonardo’s fascination with anatomy, botany and engineering. It has its counterpart in the synthesis of Raphael’s stanze or Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel, which use complex iconography to link classical learning to Christian teachings and contemporary events.
Renaissance architecture can be described as a synthesis between real and imagined features. A great example of this is Brunelleschi’s Pazzi chapel. There is a logical progression of volumes, centralized plan and the absence of unnecessary detail express the clarity characteristic of Renaissance thought.
The writings of Alberti helped to enhance the status of the artist. There was a new cult of artistic genius in which the mental capacity of the artist and the ‘God-given’ qualities of personal touch were prized above craftsman-like qualities of execution. Like the works of Leonardo Da Vinci, Titian and Michelangelo.
By the middle of the sixteenth century the serenity of the High Renaissance had given way to the distortions of Parmigianino and Correggio and the showy virtuosity of Vasari’s ceiling paintings. In part this reflected the emphasis on expression and the mastery of technical problems – such as the representation of twisted figures seen from below – as found in the later works of Raphael, Michelangelo and Leonardo. The replacement of a style which seems to have reached its ultimate expression by its opposite is a recurrent feature of art history and is often associated with the emergence of a new generation of artists and with the novelty demanded by market forces. However, the contortions of Mannerism also reflect the Counter Reformation’s interest in a less mundane and more mystical aesthetic. See, for example, the works of Tintoretto and El Greco below with their nervous contours, distorted space and flickering, insubstantial figures.
The writings of Alberti helped to enhance the status of the artist. There was a new cult of artistic genius in which the mental capacity of the artist and the ‘God-given’ qualities of personal touch were prized above craftsman-like qualities of execution. Like the works of Leonardo Da Vinci, Titian and Michelangelo.
By the middle of the sixteenth century the serenity of the High Renaissance had given way to the distortions of Parmigianino and Correggio and the showy virtuosity of Vasari’s ceiling paintings. In part this reflected the emphasis on expression and the mastery of technical problems – such as the representation of twisted figures seen from below – as found in the later works of Raphael, Michelangelo and Leonardo. The replacement of a style which seems to have reached its ultimate expression by its opposite is a recurrent feature of art history and is often associated with the emergence of a new generation of artists and with the novelty demanded by market forces. However, the contortions of Mannerism also reflect the Counter Reformation’s interest in a less mundane and more mystical aesthetic. See, for example, the works of Tintoretto and El Greco below with their nervous contours, distorted space and flickering, insubstantial figures.
Exercise: Do some research into humanism
Background
As the Middle Ages started waning a new way of thinking arose in Italy at the start of the 14th century. One where the accomplishments of man in their place in the world became central. It began with a revived interest in the Classical world of Greek and Roman language, art and culture. They believed man was central to the universe, and as such it lead to creating art that celebrated human form and the quest for representing man in his highest state. This also meant a move away from the raining christian doctrine, as artist began exploring pagan and secular themes. Meaning that a Renaissance man may indeed have found himself suspended between faith and reason.
Renaissance humanism meant educating the young and guiding the adults through moral philosophy, poetry, history and strategic rhetoric. It included reflecting, criticizing on history while hypothesizing and reshaping the future to take the people out of the Dark Ages and into a cultural reform that encourages human potential. Humanists studied the writings of Aristotle, Cicero and Livy as the believed these pagan works had a fresh and radical outlook.
The Principals and Attitudes that define Humanism
Classicism
Returning to the 'classics' to find inspiration. In the case of the Renaissance, this meant a return to Greek and Roman styles. It became like a marker for measuring art, finding the ideal beauty and perfect aesthetic. Consider the mathematical symmetry of Brunelleschi's buildings. The scientific studies of the ideal man by Da Vinci, the classically proportioned Sistine Madonna (1513-14) by Raphael and the principals of perspective used by sculptors and painters alike.
Realism
Humanist believed that their grasp of human reality, would enhance their active role in the present. It involved the examination of human uncertainty, folly, and immorality. The pursuit for representing humans realistically lead to great advances in art. Though paintings still had an air of idealism, art works began incorporating an individualistic realism by depicting character. They also wanted to represent figures and landscapes with a realistic depth and began perfecting the art of linear and aerial perspective, the use of vanishing points and the addition of chiaroscuro to help figures and objects occupy space. Consider the work of Jan van Eyk and Vermeer.
Critical scrutiny and concern with detail
A quest for precision took hold across the arts, literacy and historical disciplines. This determination lead to many scientific, artistic and mathematical breakthroughs. Many of these were lead by artists, as they became obsessed with depicting figures, landscapes and buildings with utmost precision. Consider the work of Leonardo Da Vinci and his advances in Anatomy through his study of cadavers.
The emergence of the individual and the idea of the dignity of man
The humanists were pursuing an intelligence capable of critical scrutiny and self-inquiry; and awareness of self. Petrarch expressed the idea that individuals must struggle to achieve the kind of life best suited to their own moral sense and character. Alberti echoed this belief of finding oneself and wrote books about how to lead a useful and successful life.
Active virtue
Humanists believed in the active pursuit of education, that it was a social responsibility to gain knowledge as it would aid in our understanding of self, morals and ultimately politics.
If you would like to do some additional reading, here are some good sites:
The History Guide
Britannica
Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy
Thought Co
As the Middle Ages started waning a new way of thinking arose in Italy at the start of the 14th century. One where the accomplishments of man in their place in the world became central. It began with a revived interest in the Classical world of Greek and Roman language, art and culture. They believed man was central to the universe, and as such it lead to creating art that celebrated human form and the quest for representing man in his highest state. This also meant a move away from the raining christian doctrine, as artist began exploring pagan and secular themes. Meaning that a Renaissance man may indeed have found himself suspended between faith and reason.
Renaissance humanism meant educating the young and guiding the adults through moral philosophy, poetry, history and strategic rhetoric. It included reflecting, criticizing on history while hypothesizing and reshaping the future to take the people out of the Dark Ages and into a cultural reform that encourages human potential. Humanists studied the writings of Aristotle, Cicero and Livy as the believed these pagan works had a fresh and radical outlook.
The Principals and Attitudes that define Humanism
Classicism
Returning to the 'classics' to find inspiration. In the case of the Renaissance, this meant a return to Greek and Roman styles. It became like a marker for measuring art, finding the ideal beauty and perfect aesthetic. Consider the mathematical symmetry of Brunelleschi's buildings. The scientific studies of the ideal man by Da Vinci, the classically proportioned Sistine Madonna (1513-14) by Raphael and the principals of perspective used by sculptors and painters alike.
Realism
Humanist believed that their grasp of human reality, would enhance their active role in the present. It involved the examination of human uncertainty, folly, and immorality. The pursuit for representing humans realistically lead to great advances in art. Though paintings still had an air of idealism, art works began incorporating an individualistic realism by depicting character. They also wanted to represent figures and landscapes with a realistic depth and began perfecting the art of linear and aerial perspective, the use of vanishing points and the addition of chiaroscuro to help figures and objects occupy space. Consider the work of Jan van Eyk and Vermeer.
Critical scrutiny and concern with detail
A quest for precision took hold across the arts, literacy and historical disciplines. This determination lead to many scientific, artistic and mathematical breakthroughs. Many of these were lead by artists, as they became obsessed with depicting figures, landscapes and buildings with utmost precision. Consider the work of Leonardo Da Vinci and his advances in Anatomy through his study of cadavers.
The emergence of the individual and the idea of the dignity of man
The humanists were pursuing an intelligence capable of critical scrutiny and self-inquiry; and awareness of self. Petrarch expressed the idea that individuals must struggle to achieve the kind of life best suited to their own moral sense and character. Alberti echoed this belief of finding oneself and wrote books about how to lead a useful and successful life.
Active virtue
Humanists believed in the active pursuit of education, that it was a social responsibility to gain knowledge as it would aid in our understanding of self, morals and ultimately politics.
If you would like to do some additional reading, here are some good sites:
The History Guide
Britannica
Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy
Thought Co
WHA Chapter Eleven: ‘The Sixteenth Century in Europe’.As you read, think about how the various artists discussed reconciled the conventions of a predominantly Christian society with a humanist interest in the classical world and natural phenomena, the demands of secular patrons and their developing status as thinkers rather than simply makers.
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The 16th Century in Europe is when artists took their place among the great minds of the age. Artists became famous and sought after, gaining international status through prints and engravings of their work. Leon Battista Alberti, an Italian humanist writer played a primary role in elevating the status of painters, sculptors and architects, taking them out of craftsmanship and into liberal arts. This lead to the rise of the 'Renaissance man' or 'universal man', like Leonardo Da Vinci, <Michelangelo, and Raphael.
Religious Reform
Another big shift in 16th century history is the great religious reform. The Protestant Reformation called the Catholic Church's teachings and traditions into question, causing Christians to take sides. It lead to a split in Christianity between the Roman Catholics and Protestants. Its greatest leaders were Martin Luther and John Calvin. "From this time, the teachings of Bible and Church came under examination with a freedom of thought and interpretation that led may independent Christians to form themselves into a great variety of dissident groups and congregations." The reformers mostly took on corruption and theology in the church, hoping to bring the congregation back to faith and scripture. The invention of the printing press played a major role in spreading the ideas of reformers and making texts available to all who could read. The clergy ceased to have a monopoly on learning and literature began to flourish. There were 4 major Protestant reformation branches, Lutheran, Calvinist, Anabaptist, and Anglican.
One element brought into question, particularly by John Calvin, was the production of religious images. They were seen as a form of idolatry and they particularly set out to destroy large paintings and sculptures. Thus many churches set forth to destroy artworks. Luther, however, still appreciated art and its ability to bring God glory and worship. The Protestant theology brought out a new type of art. They moved away from grandiose scenes, depictions of the saints or popes and took a more personal approach, focusing on humble depictions of biblical scenes and moralistic depictions of contemporary everyday life. This forced the Old Masters to diversify into secular art, such as history painting, portraiture, genre painting and still lifes. Although the Protestant church no longer commissioned as many pieces, the public still did private commissions.
The main attributes of Protestant art:
- The individual relationship between worshiper and God
- 'Mysteries of the faith' were downplayed, like the Annunciation or representation of Christ's sacrifice.
- They tended to avoid grandiose images of Jesus or the Virgin Mary, images of the Saints or depictions of the Popes and other senior clergy.
- I focused on humble depictions of biblical scenes and moralistic depictions of contemporary everyday life.
In contrast, the Catholic Counter-Reformation fully supported inspirational or educational church art. They continued celebrating Catholic Dogma and commissioning works of Catholic traditions, liturgy, the sacraments and the saints.
Artists During This Time
Hieronymus Bosch
An artist who thrived on biblical depictions and interpretations of scripture was Hieronymus Bosch. He was a brilliant Northern European painter who with a great sense of imagination captured the mysteries of heaven and hell. He tended to focus on human nature, in particular creating satires of our tendency toward evil. His style was abstract and vigorous, with a reminiscent Gothic flare. Bosch was incredibly popular during the start of the century, but with the reform came a call for simpler less overt art works.
Religious Reform
Another big shift in 16th century history is the great religious reform. The Protestant Reformation called the Catholic Church's teachings and traditions into question, causing Christians to take sides. It lead to a split in Christianity between the Roman Catholics and Protestants. Its greatest leaders were Martin Luther and John Calvin. "From this time, the teachings of Bible and Church came under examination with a freedom of thought and interpretation that led may independent Christians to form themselves into a great variety of dissident groups and congregations." The reformers mostly took on corruption and theology in the church, hoping to bring the congregation back to faith and scripture. The invention of the printing press played a major role in spreading the ideas of reformers and making texts available to all who could read. The clergy ceased to have a monopoly on learning and literature began to flourish. There were 4 major Protestant reformation branches, Lutheran, Calvinist, Anabaptist, and Anglican.
One element brought into question, particularly by John Calvin, was the production of religious images. They were seen as a form of idolatry and they particularly set out to destroy large paintings and sculptures. Thus many churches set forth to destroy artworks. Luther, however, still appreciated art and its ability to bring God glory and worship. The Protestant theology brought out a new type of art. They moved away from grandiose scenes, depictions of the saints or popes and took a more personal approach, focusing on humble depictions of biblical scenes and moralistic depictions of contemporary everyday life. This forced the Old Masters to diversify into secular art, such as history painting, portraiture, genre painting and still lifes. Although the Protestant church no longer commissioned as many pieces, the public still did private commissions.
The main attributes of Protestant art:
- The individual relationship between worshiper and God
- 'Mysteries of the faith' were downplayed, like the Annunciation or representation of Christ's sacrifice.
- They tended to avoid grandiose images of Jesus or the Virgin Mary, images of the Saints or depictions of the Popes and other senior clergy.
- I focused on humble depictions of biblical scenes and moralistic depictions of contemporary everyday life.
In contrast, the Catholic Counter-Reformation fully supported inspirational or educational church art. They continued celebrating Catholic Dogma and commissioning works of Catholic traditions, liturgy, the sacraments and the saints.
Artists During This Time
Hieronymus Bosch
An artist who thrived on biblical depictions and interpretations of scripture was Hieronymus Bosch. He was a brilliant Northern European painter who with a great sense of imagination captured the mysteries of heaven and hell. He tended to focus on human nature, in particular creating satires of our tendency toward evil. His style was abstract and vigorous, with a reminiscent Gothic flare. Bosch was incredibly popular during the start of the century, but with the reform came a call for simpler less overt art works.
The Garden of Earthly Delights is a large triptych creating a narrative and style very unique to that of Renaissance style. The outer panels when closed, represent the world under the flood. The central panel is the world before the flood. It is flanked by the Garden of Eden on the left and hell on the right. While other artists celebrated man and his accomplishments, Bosch stresses their frailty and wickedness. While others celebrated the pleasures of the flesh, he condemned and punished it. Bosch was unlike any other artists of that time. His works were imaginary and fantastical. His compositions were filled with pictorial representation, symbolism and weird sense of reality, almost like an hallucination.
Hans Holbein the Younger A German painter with a compelling skill to create realism in his portraits depicting royalty and nobility alike. On the left we see the portrait of Erasmus Rotterdam. Erasmus was in high demand at the time. He was a Dutch Humanist scholar and the first editor of the New Testament and so helped lay the groundwork for the historical-critical study of the past. A key figure during the time of Protestantism. In the portrait he appears withdrawn from the world. He sits at a desk in a controlled profile, his hands resting his voluminous European correspondence. There is implacable details in the face and hands. Holbein had an acute sense for texture, and uses light effectively to show the contrasts between various surfaces. |
Albrecht Dürer In 1519 he underwent a spiritual crisis from which a emerged a fervent admirer of Luther. He was mostly affected by his writings questioning the value and function of art. In response to his own pondering of the uses and abuses of art he produced The Four Apostles. The painting is a form of gratitude toward the acceptance of Lutheranism and is iconically Protestant as it embodies the Protestant beliefs about human nature. It consist of two panels, on the left are St John and St Peter, and on the right St Paul and St Mark. He intended the four figures to exemplify the four temperaments; sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric and melancholic. These are the four elements that form the basic substance of all creation. They are presented as equal individuals without a hierarchy, |
The High Renaissance in Italy
The first quarter of the 16th century was one of constant warfare and stress. Florence passes from republicanism to autocratic rule under the Medici. Northenr Italy was invaded by France twice nad the Papacy were and actively engaged in a struggle to extend temporal power while Rome itself was sacked by German and Spanish mercenaries. The mounting religious and political tension affected painters and sculptors, as well as patrons of the arts throughout Italy and it was during this time that the High Renaissance came into being. It was a time when great individuals dominated the art scene through elevated conception, controlled energy and Classical balance.
Characteristics of High Renaissance art:
- linear perspective and vanishing points,
- foreshortening,
- contrapposto -counter posing parts of the body
- illusionistic devices,
- chiaroscuro and sfumato shading
- artists aspired to beauty, and harmony more than realism, by combining the natural with the contrived
- bending the realistic rules of anatomy and proportion, in order to increase the power of expression.
Mannerism
Mannerism is a style marked by spatial complexity, artificiality, and affectation. Mannerist artists brought a new psychological intensity to visual expression. Their paintings mirrored the self-conscious spirituality and the profound
insecurities of an age of religious wars and political rivalry. It is used to describe works from the mid to late 16th century and it also implies ease of manner, virtuosity, fluency and refinement. The Works of Leonardo, Raphael and Michelangelo are prime examples, whose paintings show sharp colours, curiously compositioned figures, contrived and over refined.
Leading artists during the High Renaissance
The first quarter of the 16th century was one of constant warfare and stress. Florence passes from republicanism to autocratic rule under the Medici. Northenr Italy was invaded by France twice nad the Papacy were and actively engaged in a struggle to extend temporal power while Rome itself was sacked by German and Spanish mercenaries. The mounting religious and political tension affected painters and sculptors, as well as patrons of the arts throughout Italy and it was during this time that the High Renaissance came into being. It was a time when great individuals dominated the art scene through elevated conception, controlled energy and Classical balance.
Characteristics of High Renaissance art:
- linear perspective and vanishing points,
- foreshortening,
- contrapposto -counter posing parts of the body
- illusionistic devices,
- chiaroscuro and sfumato shading
- artists aspired to beauty, and harmony more than realism, by combining the natural with the contrived
- bending the realistic rules of anatomy and proportion, in order to increase the power of expression.
Mannerism
Mannerism is a style marked by spatial complexity, artificiality, and affectation. Mannerist artists brought a new psychological intensity to visual expression. Their paintings mirrored the self-conscious spirituality and the profound
insecurities of an age of religious wars and political rivalry. It is used to describe works from the mid to late 16th century and it also implies ease of manner, virtuosity, fluency and refinement. The Works of Leonardo, Raphael and Michelangelo are prime examples, whose paintings show sharp colours, curiously compositioned figures, contrived and over refined.
Leading artists during the High Renaissance
Leonardo Da Vinci
He was and Italian painter, draftsman, sculptor, architect and engineer. He had a boundless curiosity and appetite for learning. His passion for understanding the human body lead him to dissecting corpses and he made several accurate anatomical drawings.
He was and Italian painter, draftsman, sculptor, architect and engineer. He had a boundless curiosity and appetite for learning. His passion for understanding the human body lead him to dissecting corpses and he made several accurate anatomical drawings.
One of his most famous paintings is The Last supper, a fresco painted in tempera and oil on plaster, housed at the Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan. It is a monumental and masterful composition, especially when looking at the striking contrast in the attitudes of the 12 disciples as counter posed to Christ, which are highlighted through their gesture, facial expressions, and poses. He gathered the disciples into threes, with Christ at the center. Each is represented as noble and in relationship, aside from Judas, shown apart in the shadows. Leonardo managed to take an hierarchic scene and give it a sense of human tragedy, thereby deepening it's religious significance.
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The Mona Lisa is known as the mos famous portrait ever painted and currently on eof the most valuable. Her mysterious smile has inspired many writers, singers, and painters. Traditionally portraits were often painted in strict profile, and cut off at the bust in front of a birds-eye view of a landscape. However, Leonardo has her in a near frontal position with the hands included. She sits upright with arms folded which implies that she is reserved as her gaze is fixed on the observer
He uses sfumato to create a smokey haziness that softens the outlines and creates an atmospheric effect around the figure. It is one of the first paintings to depict a sitter in front of an imaginary landscape. The viewer gets a sense of her character, although she is shrouded by mystery and people have long since debated the meaning behind her smile. Personally her expression seems coy to me, perhaps a woman who is smart, yet humble, strong yet elegant, humorous yet mindful. |
Fra Bartolommeo
A prominent painter in Florence who was mostly influenced by Da vinci and Perugino. He mostly painted devotional paintings which are recognizable by their use of monumental figures, sfumato and rich colour harmonies. In his painting Carondelet Altarpiece he has succeeding in posing the figures in a way that not only gives them a three dimensional shape and harmony, but also in creating a rhythm and unity between the figures. The movements of the figures are gentle and soft, with gestures echoing each other. This gentle approach makes the viewer feel calm and reflective while viewing this holy gathering of the Virgin and Child. Some of his other great works include God the Father with SS. Catherine of Siena and Mary Magdalene (1509) and the Mystic Marriage of St. Catherine (1512). |
Raphael
Raffaello Sanzio was an Italian master painter and architect. His worked is admired for the easy in its composition, the clarity in his forms and his creation of human grandeur. The most notable of his works is a series of Madonnas that he painted including The Madonna of the Goldfinch (c. 1505), the Madonna del Prato (c. 1505), the Esterházy Madonna (c. 1505–07), and La Belle Jardinière (c. 1507).
Raffaello Sanzio was an Italian master painter and architect. His worked is admired for the easy in its composition, the clarity in his forms and his creation of human grandeur. The most notable of his works is a series of Madonnas that he painted including The Madonna of the Goldfinch (c. 1505), the Madonna del Prato (c. 1505), the Esterházy Madonna (c. 1505–07), and La Belle Jardinière (c. 1507).
Michelangelo
He was an exemplary Renaissance man, a painter, sculptor, architect and poet, one of the most famous and well paid artists of his time. Though despite his creative genius, he was at odds with himself, often moody, unsociable and obsessed with his work. Some of his more famous accomplishments during the High Renaissance are the "David" and "Pieta" statues and the Sistine Chapel frescoes.
He was an exemplary Renaissance man, a painter, sculptor, architect and poet, one of the most famous and well paid artists of his time. Though despite his creative genius, he was at odds with himself, often moody, unsociable and obsessed with his work. Some of his more famous accomplishments during the High Renaissance are the "David" and "Pieta" statues and the Sistine Chapel frescoes.
David, a marble sculpture that was commissioned by the board of Director of the cathedral works in Florence, is one of the most important pieces and a prime statement of the Renaissance ideal of perfect humanity. Having been blocked out and abandoned by two previous artists, the project was then taken over by Michelangelo some 40 years later.
He is presented as a provocative adolescent with a muscular torso and defiant expression. It was the first nude carved on such a colossal scale. The proportions are quite un-Classical, with hands and feet oversized and swollen veins. Even so, the figure appears heroic, filled with energy and tense. |
David is often depicted after battle, but Michelangelo has chosen to show him before battle, hence why his expression is one of concentration and alertness. The slingshot on his shoulder is hardly visible, implying that his victory is not won by force, but by wit.
“When all was finished, it cannot be denied that this work has carried off the palm from all other statues, modern or ancient, Greek or Latin; no other artwork is equal to it in any respect, with such just proportion, beauty and excellence did Michelagnolo finish it”. (Vasari sited on Academia, 2017)
“When all was finished, it cannot be denied that this work has carried off the palm from all other statues, modern or ancient, Greek or Latin; no other artwork is equal to it in any respect, with such just proportion, beauty and excellence did Michelagnolo finish it”. (Vasari sited on Academia, 2017)
The Sistine Chapel is situated in the Vatican City and is an important structure for the papacy. Michelangelo began his work on the 12,000 sq ft ceiling fresco in July 1508 and the completed frescoes were unveiled in October 1512. He painted the The Last Judgment on the end altar wall of the Sistine Chapel long after the ceiling frescoes, between 1536 to 1541.
The main nine panels at the center depict stories from Genesis, starting from the Creation to the story of Noah. This is a vast and intricate composition of biblical scenes and stories highlighting the Catholics desire to present God with his mystical and wonderful ways. Figures are presented strong, muscular and in energetic or fluid motion, often nude or with voluminous drapery. He uses impeccable displays of drama, grandeur and light to make the figures step off of the ceilings and into the imaginations of their viewers.
"For Michelangelo's frenzied, whirlwind energy made everything superhuman and Olympian, creating a pantheon for the soul's most exalted aspirations, transforming a chapel at the center of Western Christendom into a monument of his own genius." (WHA, p281)
The main nine panels at the center depict stories from Genesis, starting from the Creation to the story of Noah. This is a vast and intricate composition of biblical scenes and stories highlighting the Catholics desire to present God with his mystical and wonderful ways. Figures are presented strong, muscular and in energetic or fluid motion, often nude or with voluminous drapery. He uses impeccable displays of drama, grandeur and light to make the figures step off of the ceilings and into the imaginations of their viewers.
"For Michelangelo's frenzied, whirlwind energy made everything superhuman and Olympian, creating a pantheon for the soul's most exalted aspirations, transforming a chapel at the center of Western Christendom into a monument of his own genius." (WHA, p281)
Correggio
Antonio Allegri was an Italian Renaissance painter and one of the most important scholars of the School of Parma whose works went on to influence the styles of Baroque and Rococo. Similar to Leonardo, he prefers using chiaroscuro, and the subtle manipulation of light and shade to create soft contours. This Fresco on the ceiling of the dome of Parma Cahedral is a celebration of swirling figures which draws in the viewer, making them feel like the are pars of the scene. His sensitivity to depicting flesh is exquisite, making the wholes scene feel graceful and elegant. His paintings are a true expression of 16th century stylishness with his idealized depictions of youth and beauty. |
Parmigianino
Girolamo Francesco Maria Mazzola was an Italian painter and one of the first artists to develop the elegant and sophisticated version of Mannerist style. He derived much of his influnce from Correggio. One of the greatest examples of Mannerist style is the Madonna with the Long Neck. The subject of this piece is derived from medieval hymns which compared the Virgin's neck to a great ivory tower or column. Cool coloring and an overall smoky hue make the painting seem even more contrived and artificial, yet, by its very contrivance, unforgettable. "Parmigianino’s works are distinguished by ambiguity of spatial composition, by distortion and elongation of the human figure, and by the pursuit of what the art historian Giorgio Vasari called “grace”; that is to say, a rhythmical, sensuous beauty beyond the beauty of nature." (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007) |
Pieter Breugel the Elder
A great Flemish painter known for his landscapes and witty peasant scenes. His landscapes are almost without parallel in European art for their rendering of the overpowering grandeur. He later enjoyed creating multi figured compositions where he celebrated the labors of the common man. He showed them as yokels, with ungainly limbs and vacuous faces, his way of rejecting the Italian modish style.
A great Flemish painter known for his landscapes and witty peasant scenes. His landscapes are almost without parallel in European art for their rendering of the overpowering grandeur. He later enjoyed creating multi figured compositions where he celebrated the labors of the common man. He showed them as yokels, with ungainly limbs and vacuous faces, his way of rejecting the Italian modish style.
El Greco
He was a keen student of Italian Mannerism and even took it a step further, transforming it into a deeply emotional religious practice. His aim was to arouse religious fervor and elevate the spirit. His brushwork was ecstatically free and his use of colour expressive. Figures appear elongated and shimmering with twisted and emphatic gestures. His compositions and figure relations may seem irrational, but it forms an overall image that has terrestrial beauty and poetic radiance. |
Architecture
The ideals of Classical Rome were a great influence during the time of the High Renaissance. Architects took inspiration from unity, harmony and symmetry and particularly drew inspiration from human proportion. Buildings included many classical architectural elements like columns, pilasters, pediments, entablatures, arches, and domes. During the Counter-Reformation and the Papacy's vision to st Rome as the center of Christendom, the city underwent a complete transformation. One architect who truly ushered in the High Renaissance was Donato Bramante.
The ideals of Classical Rome were a great influence during the time of the High Renaissance. Architects took inspiration from unity, harmony and symmetry and particularly drew inspiration from human proportion. Buildings included many classical architectural elements like columns, pilasters, pediments, entablatures, arches, and domes. During the Counter-Reformation and the Papacy's vision to st Rome as the center of Christendom, the city underwent a complete transformation. One architect who truly ushered in the High Renaissance was Donato Bramante.
Donato Bramante
He is best known for his design of a centralized dome that recalls Greek temple architecture, seen in both St Peter's Basilica and the Tempietto below.
He is best known for his design of a centralized dome that recalls Greek temple architecture, seen in both St Peter's Basilica and the Tempietto below.
This monument is a symbol of concentric cosmos. It is a free standing church crowned with a hemispherical dome. It is designed with great harmony in proportions and geometry.
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This famous Roman Catholic church was designed by some of the greatest Masters of the time, including Alberti, Raphael, Michelangelo, Bernini and Bramante as the chief architect. It's design redefined Rome's heritage.
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The Venetian High Renaissance
Venice remained one of the richest cities in Europe as it was a flourishing industrial center for textiles, glass and trade with Asia. It was also the only city to resist political and economical domination by France, Spain and the Papacy. Venetian art also followed an independent course with both the state and private patrons commissioning art as a show of power, prosperity and sophistication. Venetian artists were dependent on commissions for fame and fortune.
Venetian Artists
Venetian Artists
Giorgione
He was an influential painter in the style of Venetian art. He was the first artist to exploit the luminous effects of canvas rather than panel. His work is characterized by a subtle and dreamy quality. The Tempest is a particular milestone in Renaissance painting and the first of it's genre in Venetian Painting, as he incorporated more of the landscape than of the figures. |
It is an evocative pastoral scene represented with drama and poetry. He took a sensual and intellectual approach to his work which was laden with hidden meanings and narrative. He uses soft atmospheric colours and his compositions have a sense of soft rhythm.
Some of his other works include, The Three Philosophers, Sleeping Venus, Boy with an Arrow, and Shepherd with a Flute.
Some of his other works include, The Three Philosophers, Sleeping Venus, Boy with an Arrow, and Shepherd with a Flute.
Titian
He is universally recognized as a supreme painter. His portraits penetrated human character and his paintings were a work of pictorial brilliance. His figural work set the standard for human beauty and sumptuous eroticism. He was the founder of modern painting and made oil colour on canvas the main medium for Western art. He worked with vigorous brush strokes and played on the contrast between textures with highlights, dark hues, thick paints, gradations of tone and modulated glazes, which meant his paintings had a bold rhythm and iridescent colour. He completed religious works and mythical subjects but was often preoccupied by secular themes.
He is universally recognized as a supreme painter. His portraits penetrated human character and his paintings were a work of pictorial brilliance. His figural work set the standard for human beauty and sumptuous eroticism. He was the founder of modern painting and made oil colour on canvas the main medium for Western art. He worked with vigorous brush strokes and played on the contrast between textures with highlights, dark hues, thick paints, gradations of tone and modulated glazes, which meant his paintings had a bold rhythm and iridescent colour. He completed religious works and mythical subjects but was often preoccupied by secular themes.
Titian took the pose of Venus of Urbino from Giorgione's Sleeping Venus in a landscape. Though Venus is a goddess, she lacks many of the traditional attributes. She appears to be inviting her lover with wide-eyed expectation in the bedroom while a dog lay curled up at her feet. There is a voluptuous softness and warmth to her flesh and her nude pose represents an uninhibited celebration of eroticism and love. He simply set out to use Classical mythology in the same way as 16 century poets, as a pretext for original compositions.
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The Assumption of the Virgin was commisioned for the high altar of S Maria dei Frari and is the largest altar piece ever painted in Venice. The figures are painted in a heroic scale giving them a triumphant feel. Their is great dramatic expression in the positioning of figures, highlighted by sumptuous colour and and air of golden light. It creates a wonderful and poetic narrative that justifies the spectacular nature of the Virgin’s triumph as she ascends heavenward. She is surrounded by an array of angels and Apostles all gesturing in awe at the wonder of this miracle. There is evidence of how Raphael and Michelangelo influenced his work, but Titian quickly established himself through his unique expressive and animated style and brushwork. Some of his other great portrait works include, Alfonso d’Avalos, Marques del Vasto, Pope Paul III Without Cap |
Other famous Venetian artist during this time was Tintoretto and Veronese. Both these artist were dominated by the little details. Tehir works were intricate and exploding with dramatic images that envelop the viewer. Their work is filled with grandeur and elegance, setting them apart as great dominant artists.
Venetian Architecture
The Library of S Marco introduced High Renaissance to Venice. It was designed by Jacopo Sansovino and he combined Doric and Ionic orders in his design which drips with Roman iconography. At the corners of the balustrade large obelisks stand capped with spheres reminiscent of the embellished obelisks of Roman piazzas. Running between the obelisks on the roof were naturalistic statues reminiscent of antiquity. Further recognition of a Roman identity can be traced to joining of engaged columns to the arcade along both stories as seen in the Colosseum or Theater of Marcellus. |
Andrea Palladio
His architectural designs made him one of the greatest and most influential in Western Architecture. His own work was influenced by great Mannersit and High Renaissance architects of that time like, Jacopo Sansovino, Michele Sanmicheli and Alvise Cornaro. Some of his more notable designs include the church of S Geiorgio Maggiore and the Villa Rotonda. Like many other architects during this time he had a high value for harmony. He believed that harmony had a cosmic significance, and using the laws of musical harmony and ratios, he was able to create buildings with harmonious and precise proportions.
His architectural designs made him one of the greatest and most influential in Western Architecture. His own work was influenced by great Mannersit and High Renaissance architects of that time like, Jacopo Sansovino, Michele Sanmicheli and Alvise Cornaro. Some of his more notable designs include the church of S Geiorgio Maggiore and the Villa Rotonda. Like many other architects during this time he had a high value for harmony. He believed that harmony had a cosmic significance, and using the laws of musical harmony and ratios, he was able to create buildings with harmonious and precise proportions.
From the Handbook: The Northern Renaissance
North European art in the fifteenth century was less affected by the revival of classical culture than the arts in Italy, although humanism was a potent intellectual force in this part of Europe. Artistic patronage was just as important as in Italy. A strength of Northern art is the intense spirituality expressed and use of symbolic meaning. Some of the most revered Northern artists to note is Rogier van der Weyden, Jan Van Eyk and Albrecht Durer. Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden used the new medium of oil to bind together pigments made from copper, lapis lazuli, vegetables and even kermes beetles. They applied these with hog bristle or squirrel and fox-tail brushes on smooth and carefully prepared panels to create an illusion of different textures and surfaces.
During the fourteenth century, the work of northern artists, particularly those at the Burgundian court, was prized far more highly than that of the Italians. Evidence for this can be found in the large number of their paintings in the Medici collection and in the writings of the Neapolitan, Bartolommeo Fazio, who described Northern artists as being ‘able to imitate reality through rendering colours and textures and appropriate feelings and emotions’. This early definition of ‘northern realism’ is revealing since the Northern School, in contrast to the Italians’ preoccupation with classical models and with the pursuit of the ideal. Another Northern development is the triptych which allowed believers to apprehend different kinds of reality on each panel, consider the Ghent Altarpiece by Jan van Eyck. The everyday world was portrayed on the exterior of
the triptych in monochromatic grisaille for all to see, while the highly coloured celestial world on the interior of the triptych was only revealed to the congregation on rare feast days. Hieronymus Bosch was one of the first forerunners in creating complex imagery. His Garden of Earthly Delights is a prime example and went on to inspire the four great artists of the Northern Renaissance: Lucas Cranach, Hans Holbein, Pieter Brueghel and Albrecht Dürer.
Religious wars, which afflicted most of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Brueghel’s paintings such as A Mennonite Preacher or The Massacre of the Innocents express sympathy with the popular movements as well as with the victims of persecution.
During the fourteenth century, the work of northern artists, particularly those at the Burgundian court, was prized far more highly than that of the Italians. Evidence for this can be found in the large number of their paintings in the Medici collection and in the writings of the Neapolitan, Bartolommeo Fazio, who described Northern artists as being ‘able to imitate reality through rendering colours and textures and appropriate feelings and emotions’. This early definition of ‘northern realism’ is revealing since the Northern School, in contrast to the Italians’ preoccupation with classical models and with the pursuit of the ideal. Another Northern development is the triptych which allowed believers to apprehend different kinds of reality on each panel, consider the Ghent Altarpiece by Jan van Eyck. The everyday world was portrayed on the exterior of
the triptych in monochromatic grisaille for all to see, while the highly coloured celestial world on the interior of the triptych was only revealed to the congregation on rare feast days. Hieronymus Bosch was one of the first forerunners in creating complex imagery. His Garden of Earthly Delights is a prime example and went on to inspire the four great artists of the Northern Renaissance: Lucas Cranach, Hans Holbein, Pieter Brueghel and Albrecht Dürer.
Religious wars, which afflicted most of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Brueghel’s paintings such as A Mennonite Preacher or The Massacre of the Innocents express sympathy with the popular movements as well as with the victims of persecution.
Exercise: Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century portraits
Today a painted portrait can be compared with other sorts of images, notably photographs, but we have no such points of reference (apart from written descriptions and further portraits) for portraits created before the mid-nineteenth century. Portraits like Holbein’s Erasmus of Rotterdam (he painted several versions), Cranach’s Martin Luther or Titian’s Pope Paul III all convey the sense of a distinctive personality but we can’t be certain how accurate they are. Such portraits can be
very powerful nonetheless; most people’s mental picture of Henry VIII, for example, comes straight from the famous Holbein portrait. The sitter’s surroundings may tell us a good deal about the person – intentionally or otherwise. WHA (p.463) describes Holbein’s portrait of Erasmus as showing him: ... standing beside a pilaster delicately carved with Classical motifs and resting his sensitive fingers on a book inscribed in Greek ‘The Herculean Labours’ and in Latin ‘of Erasmus of Rotterdam’. The origins of his scholarship are thus made quite explicit, but the purity and truth of his Christian humanism are also alluded to (in the decanter of clear water). It is the image of a new and peculiarly Renaissance type of man, the aristocrat of the intellect.
Martin Luther, on the other hand, is shown without any visual clues at all, but this is significant in itself. What the viewer sees is a plain but resolute man, free of the trappings of the Catholic Church or Renaissance academic life; by implication, he has rejected all this in favour of a focus on man’s eternal soul. Do some research then copy or make your own version of at least two portraits. Record the process in your learning log.
very powerful nonetheless; most people’s mental picture of Henry VIII, for example, comes straight from the famous Holbein portrait. The sitter’s surroundings may tell us a good deal about the person – intentionally or otherwise. WHA (p.463) describes Holbein’s portrait of Erasmus as showing him: ... standing beside a pilaster delicately carved with Classical motifs and resting his sensitive fingers on a book inscribed in Greek ‘The Herculean Labours’ and in Latin ‘of Erasmus of Rotterdam’. The origins of his scholarship are thus made quite explicit, but the purity and truth of his Christian humanism are also alluded to (in the decanter of clear water). It is the image of a new and peculiarly Renaissance type of man, the aristocrat of the intellect.
Martin Luther, on the other hand, is shown without any visual clues at all, but this is significant in itself. What the viewer sees is a plain but resolute man, free of the trappings of the Catholic Church or Renaissance academic life; by implication, he has rejected all this in favour of a focus on man’s eternal soul. Do some research then copy or make your own version of at least two portraits. Record the process in your learning log.
To get inspiration I googled 16th and 17th century portraits. The first image I found was the cover art of a book written by Oliva Sabucco a Spanish writer and medicine scholar. I was unable to find out who the artist is, or who the subject of the portrait is, though I assume it might be Oliva. I just liked the expression and pose, so wanted to use it as inspiration.
The second image is a portrait by Peter Paul Rubens, I like that it was a kind of secret moment where the woman is looking into the mirror. There is a softness to her appearance and an appreciation for her curved shape which drew me in.
The second image is a portrait by Peter Paul Rubens, I like that it was a kind of secret moment where the woman is looking into the mirror. There is a softness to her appearance and an appreciation for her curved shape which drew me in.
I wanted to recreate the portrait in a more free and impressionistic style using oils. It was not a great success as I made mistakes with the colour compositions which I then tried to correct, but I do think there are some great textures and contrasts happening. It is hard to see the colouring with the photograph and the closeup represents the colour combinations better.
I quite like the portraits I created in Part 1 of this unit, so I wanted to use the same style. I worked with watercolours, keeping to two colours, blue and brown,and ink pen to obtain the final result.
Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione by Raphael
Raphael was one of the most famous artist during the High Renaissance who's work greatly influenced the history of Western art. His portraiture is nown for its realism and naturalism, two of the defining features of the Renaissance. The Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione is a friend of Rahael who was a literary artist and thinker in the early 16th century. He wrote a best selling book The Courtier and Raphael's depiction of him matches Baldassare's descriptions of noble men in his book.
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The popular Renaissance pyramid shape is used for the composition with the sitter being positioned slightly sideways while turning his upper body to the front. A simple colour scheme is used and the figure occupies the space with a sense of Neoplatonic ideal and human grandeur. The light background and shaded fabrics provide a harmonious tonality. He is clearly a man of culture, which is reflected in the sensitive rendering of his clothes and the rounded features of his clothing and beard. He is portrayed as elegant, yet intelligent, assertive and in control, yet humble and honest.
An Old Man and his Grandson by Domenico Ghirlandaio
Domenico Ghirlandaio's portraits are noted for their detailed narratives. His works include many portraits of leading citizens. An Old Man and His Grandson is a moving and loving portrayal of an aging nobleman and his grandson. The red lush clothing suggests wealth and position. The depiction of the older man is presented with flaws and realism, a shift brought by humanists in celebrating man as apposed to creating idealized figures. The man is presented with his warts, grey hair and aging skin, a stark contrast to the fair presentation of the child. But the viewer looks past imperfections and reads the narrative. A story of affection and trust. A man looking back to a time of youth and life. The boy looking up to his future and what may be. the focus therefore shifts to virtue and character.
The pair are seated by a window with a view of a rural landscape often used by Ghirlandaio. This ads to the sense of space and depth, through the use of aerial perspective. There is great colour depth and harmony, while the use of bright red creates a vibrant focal point. |
Lady with an Ermine by Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo Da Vinci was the ultimate 'Renaissance Man', a master in many disciplines but renowned primarily as a painter. His portrait Lady with an Ermine is still maintained to be the world’s first modern-age portrait according to art historians. It is a portrait of Cecilia Gallerani, an alluring young noble woman from the Milanese court who was was renowned for her beauty, scholarship, and poetry.
She is depicted in a three-quarter profile, one of Da Vinci's many innovations and contributions to portraiture. Her dress is relatively simple, though there is an elegance in the his soft textural portrayal of the fabric. Her facial features are not strongly defined or outlined but conveyed by soft, blended variations in tone and color. Another technique favored by Da Vinci, known as Sfumato, which means soft, vague or blurred. The ermine is a symbol of purity as Da vinci noted it would rather let itself be captured by hunters than take refuge in a dirty lair, in order not to stain its purity, however some have said that the animal may be a weasel which would refer to pregnancy in Italian culture. He relies on under paintings, in fact this painting is shown to have three distinctive layers, showing how Da Vinci changed the composition. The dark background almost makes her feel like a cut out, but also allows the luminosity of her skin stand out. But overall there is a serenity and subtlety in the colors providing a more cohesive appearance. |
From the Handbook: From Renaissance to Baroque
The seventeenth century was one of expanding markets with the development of portable and tradable arts like still life pictures, flower paintings, interior scenes, seascapes, landscapes, town views. Add to this the expansion of printmaking
for editions of single plates as well as book illustration which meant that an artist’s work could be widely disseminated and
prints were avidly collected. The market for art now expanded to include the merchant classes as well as the church and the aristocracy. This new market had different requirements in terms of subject matter. The work of Rubens and Rembrandt were influential during this time, although Caravaggio is still admired for the tonal drama of his chiaroscuro.
for editions of single plates as well as book illustration which meant that an artist’s work could be widely disseminated and
prints were avidly collected. The market for art now expanded to include the merchant classes as well as the church and the aristocracy. This new market had different requirements in terms of subject matter. The work of Rubens and Rembrandt were influential during this time, although Caravaggio is still admired for the tonal drama of his chiaroscuro.
Caravaggio is best known for a use of light which adds drama as well as three-dimensionality to his paintings, as in the spread-eagled figure in his Conversion of St Paul. The painting’s emphasis on mystery and revelation is typical of the Counter Reformation
and provides a foil to the un-idealised portrayal of the old man and the horse. Light is, perhaps, the most important preoccupation of the century. It unites the work of Rubens, Velásquez, Rembrandt and Vermeer. Yet Caravaggio’s St Paul also shows an interest in a complex portrayal of space, which it shares with Rubens’ Rape of the Daughters of Leucipus. |
The artists of the seventeenth century can be broadly divided between painters who worked fot the Catholic Courts such as Rubens, Velásquez and van Dyck and artists such as Rembrandt, Ruisdael and Vermeer, who were associated with the Protestant revolt against Spain. Both north and south were affected by the huge increase in the market and the growth in academies of artists, first in Florence in 1563 and then in Rome and Paris. These academies helped to enhance the status of the artist and promoted painting and sculpture as a branch of the liberal arts rather than a craft. They also contributed to the fixing of a hierarchy of artistic subjects, with history painting at its summit, and to the training of artists in drawing, both from live models and from copies of classical sculpture.
Architecture and decoration in this period elaborately combined Christian with classical elements, either formally by using classical orders, or through subjects where myths reinforce or complement Christian morals. Architects of Baroque churches developed the use of classical elements like porch, columns, capitals, pediment and domes. Consider the daring work of Borromini. Baroque broke free of the restraint of the previous century and appealed directly to the senses. It has been suggested that the Catholic Church encouraged this more direct and dramatic way of portraying the Christian message as part of its attempt to counter the effects of the Protestant Reformation. This was art designed to impress
Architecture and decoration in this period elaborately combined Christian with classical elements, either formally by using classical orders, or through subjects where myths reinforce or complement Christian morals. Architects of Baroque churches developed the use of classical elements like porch, columns, capitals, pediment and domes. Consider the daring work of Borromini. Baroque broke free of the restraint of the previous century and appealed directly to the senses. It has been suggested that the Catholic Church encouraged this more direct and dramatic way of portraying the Christian message as part of its attempt to counter the effects of the Protestant Reformation. This was art designed to impress
One of the greatest events during the 17th century was the rise of the Dutch republic. Holland and 6 other Netherlands provinces rebelled against the Spanish to become one of the richest and most tolerant European states. Its prosperity came from world wide maritime trade and free enterprise. The North also contributed to great scientific thought as well as advances in astronomy and mathematics. There was also a new philosophy on thinking thanks to Rene Descartes who established that mind is more certain than matter, giving rise to skepticism and speculative thinking, and breaking the previous dependence on Plato and Aristotle's teachings. this had an immediate impact on the visual arts and a flowering of Dutch painting followed. Meanwhile in Rome the Papacy recovered from the Protestant Reformation and continued to be a great artistic center.
New Beginnings in Rome
The Academy of St Luke in Rome really helped to elevate the work of artists. From the early 17th century is provided lectures on theory, instruction in design and facilities for life-classes. It was also a platform where artists could share knowledge, and artists often debated theories on their expectations of art. Leon Battista Alberti theorized that the artist should represent what they see, but should idealize and add beauty in order to make them a delight. This notion of hand picking only the perfect of most beautiful elements seen in nature to paint, was later reiterated by Giovanni Pietro Bellori. These theorist criticized the new mannerist movement or those painting subjects with defects.The rise in the training and importance of artists also meant a rise in art collecting, which naturally led to art dealing. This required a more portable product and thus easel paintings began to occupy Europe. While most collectors gathered art based on the theories of idealism, there were those who by the mid 17th century began to seek work with freedom of handling an subject matter. Two artist who really show the opposing notions of idealism and naturalism in 17th century art are Carraci and Caravaggio.
New Beginnings in Rome
The Academy of St Luke in Rome really helped to elevate the work of artists. From the early 17th century is provided lectures on theory, instruction in design and facilities for life-classes. It was also a platform where artists could share knowledge, and artists often debated theories on their expectations of art. Leon Battista Alberti theorized that the artist should represent what they see, but should idealize and add beauty in order to make them a delight. This notion of hand picking only the perfect of most beautiful elements seen in nature to paint, was later reiterated by Giovanni Pietro Bellori. These theorist criticized the new mannerist movement or those painting subjects with defects.The rise in the training and importance of artists also meant a rise in art collecting, which naturally led to art dealing. This required a more portable product and thus easel paintings began to occupy Europe. While most collectors gathered art based on the theories of idealism, there were those who by the mid 17th century began to seek work with freedom of handling an subject matter. Two artist who really show the opposing notions of idealism and naturalism in 17th century art are Carraci and Caravaggio.
Carracci took inspiration from the great masters like Michelangelo and Raphael. He painted Classically composed figures in a decorative and narrative setting. "However, Annibale was able to mix that revolutionary realism with the idealized perfection of classical and Renaissance art, thus pioneering a style of "idealized realism" that represented the middle path between the outlandish fantasy of Mannerism and the dark, gritty realism of Caravaggio and his followers" (Artble, 2017)
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Caravaggio was 'breaking the rule' of Renaissance painting at the time. He painted boldly and directly, removing symbolism while depicting unidealized and illuminated figures set against a dark and mysterious background.
He gathered quite a following and Caravaggism spread throughout Italy, Spain, France and the Netherlands. |
Baroque art and architecture
The Counter Reformation made a great impact on art and can be seen in the emotional spirit and iconography of paintings commissioned by the church. It is from this Counter Reformation that Baroque art came to be as a way to enforce religious orthodoxy and so the Bible and classical mythology remained the primary subjects for paintings. The term Baroque is a combination of the Italian barocco, meaning complex and excessive and the Portuguese barrocco, meaning a deformed pearl. It has come to define a period in art and architecture when the style was emotional, dynamic and exuberantly decorative. There was however still the constant struggle between the Church and Humanism and Baroque "may be seen as an expression of the compromise of faith with intellectual freedom" (Copplestone, 1983:228)
The status of artists also greatly improved at this time as they were now "educated and cultured, and most importantly, their individual genius was recognized an revered. This lead to vanity conceit and arrogance among artists, which is another common element of Baroque art. The most important element in Baroque art is the expression and manipulation of space. Artists were driven by their curiosity to create an emotional expression of space, something mystical and spiritual.
The Counter Reformation made a great impact on art and can be seen in the emotional spirit and iconography of paintings commissioned by the church. It is from this Counter Reformation that Baroque art came to be as a way to enforce religious orthodoxy and so the Bible and classical mythology remained the primary subjects for paintings. The term Baroque is a combination of the Italian barocco, meaning complex and excessive and the Portuguese barrocco, meaning a deformed pearl. It has come to define a period in art and architecture when the style was emotional, dynamic and exuberantly decorative. There was however still the constant struggle between the Church and Humanism and Baroque "may be seen as an expression of the compromise of faith with intellectual freedom" (Copplestone, 1983:228)
The status of artists also greatly improved at this time as they were now "educated and cultured, and most importantly, their individual genius was recognized an revered. This lead to vanity conceit and arrogance among artists, which is another common element of Baroque art. The most important element in Baroque art is the expression and manipulation of space. Artists were driven by their curiosity to create an emotional expression of space, something mystical and spiritual.
Painting
In Naples naturalism flourished due to the patronage of Spanish rulers. In Rome small pictures of peasants or beggars painted by Flemish artists were popular, though the church still commissioned large idealized religious works. Some of the most distinguished painter working in Rome during the mid 17th century were Nicolas Poussin and Claude Loraine. Poussin's style became the official style at the French Academy in Paris for the rest of the 17th century, with his work having a profound influence on French Baroque. While Claude Lorraine was practically the inventor of the Classical Landscape and it his due to his work that this genre is consider a higher art form in the West today.
Rubens
Peter Paul Rubens was the highest esteemed artist in Europe during this century. He diligently studied the masters, incorporating the best of their techniques into his own robust and sensual style. He had an incredible imagination along with the ability to depict it in pictorial brilliance. His painting, Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus set a new ideal fro female beauty; natural, mature and full figured. He also broke from the traditional triangular portrait compositions used by the masters before him, and used a diamond shape to create an intricate entanglement of figures. His paintings seek to bring the supernatural within the reach of human experience, which we see in executed beautifully in The miracles of St. Francis Xavier. |
Van Dyck
He was an assistant and follower of Rubens. Though he painted religious and mythological subjects he truly excelled in portraits. He painted several portraits of Charles I who was obsessed with the idea of kinship. Charles is depicted with an imperial guise in a composition that makes him appear almost saintly. Though he was actual small and plain in stature, Van Dyck has managed to depict him as commanding, cultivated and transfigured. These kinds of portraits are reminiscent of the type of propaganda pieces commissioned by the Roman emperors. Images that remind the public of their power and rule. |
Reni Guido Reni was a Bolognese painter who adopted Caravaggio's dramatic use of chiaroscuro. He used this to create figures that are noble and highlighted. He explored the mobility of the figures with poses reminicent of dancing. The figures feel like they are in motion, with limbs delicately positioned and cloths gracefully draped. Reni created a natural and sensual image. |
Poussin
His paintings are a mix of influences, from classical antiquity and Mannerism to the Renaissance which he blended successfully to create harmonious compositions. Unlike other Baroque artists he didn't favor genre scenes and instead painted subjects that were grand, epic stories from history, presenting figures with classical poise and heroism, as we see in The Holy Family on the Steps. Every element has a symbolic meaning and pictorial function making his work like a poem demanding to be studied and reflected upon. |
Claude
Claude Lorraine was practically the inventor of the Classical Landscape and it his due to his work that this genre is consider a higher art form in the West today. His landscapes represent "the pastoral world of a Classical Golden Age" (WHA 587). His inspiration came from the Roman countryside and Latin poetry. His greatest innovation was light emanating form the horizon towards the spectator through its reflections on the water, beautifully seen in Seaport at Sunset. His compositions are subtle, unifying and skillfully dramatic. |
Velazquez Diego de Velazquez is a Spanish artist who was greatly inspired by antiquity and artists like Titian. Velázquez is described as the forerunner for impressionism. His painting style can be described as fluid, free and abstract while still conveying a sense of realism and liveliness. The Peasants at the Table serves as a prime example of how the attitude towards subject matter in art was changing. Firstly moving away from religious art, secondly creating a shift in the view of the poor and thirdly providing a a satirical narrative of the artist's view of the world. |
Sculpture
Bernini
Baroque exuberance was mainly derived from the artist Gianlorenzo Bernini. He worked mainly as a sculptor though he was also an architect and painter and many of his works were commissioned by popes and was one of the main contributors to the present appearance of Rome. He first made his name as a sculptor of portrait busts, like Francesco I seen below. He had the great ability of creating tone and semblances of colour in his carvings, giving the subject presence and a lifelike impression. His design of Baldacchino epitomizes Baroque style with its flamboyant twisted columns, colossal statues, grandiose stature and intricate detail. Another great piece is his Fountain of the Four Rivers, showcasing 4 large figures with contrasting poses, an extravaganza of energy detail and symbolism.
Baroque exuberance was mainly derived from the artist Gianlorenzo Bernini. He worked mainly as a sculptor though he was also an architect and painter and many of his works were commissioned by popes and was one of the main contributors to the present appearance of Rome. He first made his name as a sculptor of portrait busts, like Francesco I seen below. He had the great ability of creating tone and semblances of colour in his carvings, giving the subject presence and a lifelike impression. His design of Baldacchino epitomizes Baroque style with its flamboyant twisted columns, colossal statues, grandiose stature and intricate detail. Another great piece is his Fountain of the Four Rivers, showcasing 4 large figures with contrasting poses, an extravaganza of energy detail and symbolism.
Architecture
"The embellishment of Rome in the 16th century increased as various popes threw themselves optimistically in creating a city that was to be the figurehead of the Counter-Reformation...to make Rome the center of the Catholic Revival" (Copplestone, 1983:228) The popes set out to destroy medieval Rome and instead created building facades that suited the image of the papacy. Much of present day Rome can be attributed to artist Gianlornzo Bernini. Obelisks and statues were placed in the center of many squares.This made Rome a magnet for tourists and pilgrims, who now drew in artists from other declining centers like Florence and Venice.
Barromini
Francesco Barromini was a stone carver and decorative sculptor. He was well versed in ancient Roman architecture and greatly concerned with stuctural problems and thrilling spatial effects. Geometry fascinated him in design and can be seen in his ingenious plan of intersecting equilateral triangles and circles when designing the Dome of S Ivo della Sapienze.
Francesco Barromini was a stone carver and decorative sculptor. He was well versed in ancient Roman architecture and greatly concerned with stuctural problems and thrilling spatial effects. Geometry fascinated him in design and can be seen in his ingenious plan of intersecting equilateral triangles and circles when designing the Dome of S Ivo della Sapienze.
Dutch Painting
The Dutch republic played a great role in the intellectual life of Europe during the 17th century and this time became known as the Dutch Golden Age. It was the Age of portraits and still life lead by the Old Dutch Masters like Hals, Rembrandt and Vermeer. It was a country that was free of judgement and speculation, excepting all travelers, artists and philosophers, along with their views, many of these attending the Dutch School of Painting. Antwerp in particular was a trading powerhouse during this time, attracting many skilled workers, craftsman and rich merchants. Merchants were the pillar of society during the 17th century, with a growing interest in purchasing art. This gave rise to the Dutch easel painting claiming the most distinctive form of painting in Europe during the 17th century with genres spanning from seascapes, landscapes and bodegones. Maritime scenes were particularly popular as they reminded the Dutch of their strong navel fleet and thriving trading port. Genre pictures were also in high demand, depicting the familiar world with sharp detail and realism, as if representing a mirror to the viewer. These were also rife with symbolism and moral messages.
The Dutch republic played a great role in the intellectual life of Europe during the 17th century and this time became known as the Dutch Golden Age. It was the Age of portraits and still life lead by the Old Dutch Masters like Hals, Rembrandt and Vermeer. It was a country that was free of judgement and speculation, excepting all travelers, artists and philosophers, along with their views, many of these attending the Dutch School of Painting. Antwerp in particular was a trading powerhouse during this time, attracting many skilled workers, craftsman and rich merchants. Merchants were the pillar of society during the 17th century, with a growing interest in purchasing art. This gave rise to the Dutch easel painting claiming the most distinctive form of painting in Europe during the 17th century with genres spanning from seascapes, landscapes and bodegones. Maritime scenes were particularly popular as they reminded the Dutch of their strong navel fleet and thriving trading port. Genre pictures were also in high demand, depicting the familiar world with sharp detail and realism, as if representing a mirror to the viewer. These were also rife with symbolism and moral messages.
Hals Frans Hals is regarded as the founder of the Dutch School of painting. He was a great portrait painter who freely captured the expression and character of his sitters. He was uninhibited and worked with a spontaneity that gave his portraits life. His portrait of the Merry Drinker is warm, animated and full of sparkle. The viewer almost feels as though they have caught the gentleman in the act as he responds with a wave. He pained with slashing strokes and jagged outlines which create the wonderful impression of movements, He also has a fine handling of light and shadow, further adding to the realistic feel of the sitter. |
Rembrandt
Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn was a painter and etcher who dominated the Dutch Golden Age, best known for his portraits of his contemporaries, illustrations of biblical scenes and numerous self-portraits. He was a great story teller with the exceptional ability to render people in their various moods and dramatic guises. Opposed to the idea of idealization, he worked in a realism that almost seemed to glorify ugliness. The Night Watch is a wonderful example of his pictorial story telling, as this vast canvas is bustling with activity. He painted with rich contrasts between light and dark, a master of chiaroscuro. He worked with a small palette of colours layering them with an impasto technique. |
Landscapes
Jan van Goyen was a gifted landscape artists. He often made use of low horizons which gave his landscapes a Baroque sense of spatial expansiveness. He was very concerned with rendering natural light and made use of subtle atmospheric effects with are the identifying features of van Goyen’s tonal landscapes as can be seen in River Landscape with a Cattle-Ferry. Aelbert Cuyp in contrast worked with a more colourful palette, giving his landscape and maritime scenes a more radiating atmosphere as is seen in The Maas of Dordrecht. Maritime scenes were popular as they reminded the Dutch of their strong navel fleet and thriving trading port.
Jan van Goyen was a gifted landscape artists. He often made use of low horizons which gave his landscapes a Baroque sense of spatial expansiveness. He was very concerned with rendering natural light and made use of subtle atmospheric effects with are the identifying features of van Goyen’s tonal landscapes as can be seen in River Landscape with a Cattle-Ferry. Aelbert Cuyp in contrast worked with a more colourful palette, giving his landscape and maritime scenes a more radiating atmosphere as is seen in The Maas of Dordrecht. Maritime scenes were popular as they reminded the Dutch of their strong navel fleet and thriving trading port.
Still life and Genre
Rachel Ruysch was well revered as a still life painter, particularly of flowers. She depicted them with great scientific accuracy with each petal, stem, and leaf rendered precisely, as seen in Flower in Vase. Textures are remarkably realistic while the composition of the flowers are lively and informal. Judith Leyster specialized in portrait-like domestic genre scenes. Her composition were unique and often portrayed from a female perspective, adding additional meaning to the subject matter. From The Proposition we see that her work had an energy which drew in the viewer through the subjects positioning and relationships
Rachel Ruysch was well revered as a still life painter, particularly of flowers. She depicted them with great scientific accuracy with each petal, stem, and leaf rendered precisely, as seen in Flower in Vase. Textures are remarkably realistic while the composition of the flowers are lively and informal. Judith Leyster specialized in portrait-like domestic genre scenes. Her composition were unique and often portrayed from a female perspective, adding additional meaning to the subject matter. From The Proposition we see that her work had an energy which drew in the viewer through the subjects positioning and relationships
Vermeer
Jan Vermeer specialized in genre paintings with moral messages and subtle symbolism. His works stand out because of his sensitive rendering of light and his occupation with how it reflects off different surfaces. He was skilled in composition, not only in his rendering of space, but also through his use of colour. In The Art of Painting, the richness of the various textures truly stand out. You feel the heaviness of the curtain, the softness of the figures and the sharpness of the light spilling in through the window. |
England and France The English bought several works by Dutch artists, which had a great influence on their decorative arts and domestic architecture, particularity the use of brick with stone dressing. In France the arts were used in service of autocracy and expressing the achievements of their monarch, Louis XIV. |
Exercise: Choose some prints for sale
Imagine that you’re a publisher in Amsterdam in the mid-seventeenth century. You task is to compile a select catalog of up to a dozen prints that you’d like to be able to offer to your regular clientele. Your customers are primarily from the Amsterdam merchant class but they have a variety of artistic tastes.
What to include:
- 2x devotional/ religious prints
- 2x narrative and allegorical prints from books or as independent plates
- Dutch landscapes
- domestic interior scenes and still life compositions, which may or may not have allegorical significance
- portraits likely to be of general interest
- write three or four sentences for each print explaining the reasons behind your selection.
Background Information
During the 16th century there was unrest and war between the Spanish and the Dutch. After a peace agreement the Dutch Republic received formal independence from the Spanish Crown. Antwerp in particular was a trading powerhouse during this time. Attracting many skilled workers, craftsman and rich merchants. Merchants were the pillar of society during the 17th century. Many of them were protestants who fled from religious persecution. International trade of spices provided good wealth and relationships. They had impressive fleets and were skilled at maritime and naval warfare, fishing and agriculture. Especially with the innovation of the sawmill. Merchants started living a more modern lifestyle with a growing interest in family and society.
Family Portrait, Gillis van Tilborgh, 1670
Gillis is a Flemish painter well known for his portrait and genre paintings. He was a master at creating intricate compositions. His es of a harmonious palette, makes the scene feel elegant. The family is celebrating their success and togetherness, a scene likely to appeal to other merchants.
Syndics of the Drapers' Guild, Rembrandt, 1662
This is one of Rembrandt most famous portrait paintings. It is of a group of officials from the Cloth-makers Guild. Each member is presented with a unique characteristic and they are shown to be focused in their work. Other merchants would appreciate how hard work and dedication is being honored. Rembrandt's expressive style was also really appreciated and unique during this time.
The Bedroom, Pieter De Hooch, 1658-60
This is a common domestic scene. A child opens a door to the room where we see the mother doing laundry. Hooch is known for his intimate compositions. He had an excellent grasp of space and was a master at using light to create a luminous room with light bouncing and cascading off objects. The intimate expressions between the mother and child would likely appeal to a merchant family with a high expectation of family values.
The Drawing, Jan Steen, 1665
This is and interior and allegorical scene depicting the artist and the nature of his profession. Objects related to the traditional theme of vanitas are piled in the lower right corner; a laurel wreath, a skull, wine, a fur muff, a book, a lute, and a pipe--remind viewers of the brevity of life and fame. Many of the Merchants were craftsman coming to Amsterdam for work and would appreciate the allegory and the higher status provided to craftsman. Additionally the composition is rich with depth and colour and would make an exciting addition to a collection.
A river landscape with fishermen in rowing boats, Abraham Storck ,1679
During the 17th Century the Netherlands were well known for their impressive fleets of ships and the harbour was a buzz with international trade and fisherman. Many merchants would be working in trade and have a great appreciation for a scene celebrating the glory of the harbour. Storck had a particular talent for capturing the energy and vibrancy of maritime.
Warships in a Calm Sea, Willem van der Velde, 1678
Willem is a renowned maritime painter who is celebrated for his accurate and delicate depictions of the vessels and their rigging. Netherlands were well known for their impressive naval army, a topic likely also celebrated and honoured by the merchants of that time.
View of Rhenen, Jan van Goyen, 1646
van Goyen was a prolific landscape artist. His ability to use tone to capture landscapes made them feel atmospheric and nostalgic. Any merchant with an appreciation for the beautiful Dutch landscape would love this nostalgic painting and its moody colouring.
Still Life with a late Ming Ginger Jar, Wilhelm Kalf, 1669
During the height of trade, these are the typical kind of sumptuous and costly items that would be flowing through the Netherlands. This vibrant composition of expensive and international wares would be a great symbol of wealth in a merchant's home. Kalf is particularly skilled at depicting the different textures of these objects and giving them a lush realism.
Still life with Fruit, Caravaggio, 1605-1610
Caravaggio was an innovative Italian painter who inspired the Baroque movement and the skill of chiaroscuro. His works would definitely be an investment. The depiction of fruit was symbolic of abundance, fertility and vitality and you can certainly sense all of these when looking at this painting. The fruits and vegetable are depicted with a vibrancy and appear to be bursting off of the table, a great symbol of youth and wealth for a merchant.
Christ and the Cyrenian, Titian, 1565
Titian is versatile Italian artists whose fascination with color and luminosity make him well sought after. The depiction of Christ baring the cross on the road to Calvary was a popular subject. As many merchants were protestants this image would be a reminder of sacrifice and forgiveness. It would also be symbolic of how the Dutch was excepting of everyone, especially those in exile during the Renaissance wars.
The Fall of Phaeton, Peter Paul Rubens, 1604
Around 1600, Rubens, who had been trained in classical ideals and philosophy, traveled from Antwerp to Italy, learning and being inspired by many great masters, providing him with a multifaceted style and technique and I believe the merchants would appreciate his traveling background. The story of Phaeton is filled with drama, allegory and moralizing implications. It was seen as a parable on the devastating consequences of pride and lack of moderation.
What to include:
- 2x devotional/ religious prints
- 2x narrative and allegorical prints from books or as independent plates
- Dutch landscapes
- domestic interior scenes and still life compositions, which may or may not have allegorical significance
- portraits likely to be of general interest
- write three or four sentences for each print explaining the reasons behind your selection.
Background Information
During the 16th century there was unrest and war between the Spanish and the Dutch. After a peace agreement the Dutch Republic received formal independence from the Spanish Crown. Antwerp in particular was a trading powerhouse during this time. Attracting many skilled workers, craftsman and rich merchants. Merchants were the pillar of society during the 17th century. Many of them were protestants who fled from religious persecution. International trade of spices provided good wealth and relationships. They had impressive fleets and were skilled at maritime and naval warfare, fishing and agriculture. Especially with the innovation of the sawmill. Merchants started living a more modern lifestyle with a growing interest in family and society.
Family Portrait, Gillis van Tilborgh, 1670
Gillis is a Flemish painter well known for his portrait and genre paintings. He was a master at creating intricate compositions. His es of a harmonious palette, makes the scene feel elegant. The family is celebrating their success and togetherness, a scene likely to appeal to other merchants.
Syndics of the Drapers' Guild, Rembrandt, 1662
This is one of Rembrandt most famous portrait paintings. It is of a group of officials from the Cloth-makers Guild. Each member is presented with a unique characteristic and they are shown to be focused in their work. Other merchants would appreciate how hard work and dedication is being honored. Rembrandt's expressive style was also really appreciated and unique during this time.
The Bedroom, Pieter De Hooch, 1658-60
This is a common domestic scene. A child opens a door to the room where we see the mother doing laundry. Hooch is known for his intimate compositions. He had an excellent grasp of space and was a master at using light to create a luminous room with light bouncing and cascading off objects. The intimate expressions between the mother and child would likely appeal to a merchant family with a high expectation of family values.
The Drawing, Jan Steen, 1665
This is and interior and allegorical scene depicting the artist and the nature of his profession. Objects related to the traditional theme of vanitas are piled in the lower right corner; a laurel wreath, a skull, wine, a fur muff, a book, a lute, and a pipe--remind viewers of the brevity of life and fame. Many of the Merchants were craftsman coming to Amsterdam for work and would appreciate the allegory and the higher status provided to craftsman. Additionally the composition is rich with depth and colour and would make an exciting addition to a collection.
A river landscape with fishermen in rowing boats, Abraham Storck ,1679
During the 17th Century the Netherlands were well known for their impressive fleets of ships and the harbour was a buzz with international trade and fisherman. Many merchants would be working in trade and have a great appreciation for a scene celebrating the glory of the harbour. Storck had a particular talent for capturing the energy and vibrancy of maritime.
Warships in a Calm Sea, Willem van der Velde, 1678
Willem is a renowned maritime painter who is celebrated for his accurate and delicate depictions of the vessels and their rigging. Netherlands were well known for their impressive naval army, a topic likely also celebrated and honoured by the merchants of that time.
View of Rhenen, Jan van Goyen, 1646
van Goyen was a prolific landscape artist. His ability to use tone to capture landscapes made them feel atmospheric and nostalgic. Any merchant with an appreciation for the beautiful Dutch landscape would love this nostalgic painting and its moody colouring.
Still Life with a late Ming Ginger Jar, Wilhelm Kalf, 1669
During the height of trade, these are the typical kind of sumptuous and costly items that would be flowing through the Netherlands. This vibrant composition of expensive and international wares would be a great symbol of wealth in a merchant's home. Kalf is particularly skilled at depicting the different textures of these objects and giving them a lush realism.
Still life with Fruit, Caravaggio, 1605-1610
Caravaggio was an innovative Italian painter who inspired the Baroque movement and the skill of chiaroscuro. His works would definitely be an investment. The depiction of fruit was symbolic of abundance, fertility and vitality and you can certainly sense all of these when looking at this painting. The fruits and vegetable are depicted with a vibrancy and appear to be bursting off of the table, a great symbol of youth and wealth for a merchant.
Christ and the Cyrenian, Titian, 1565
Titian is versatile Italian artists whose fascination with color and luminosity make him well sought after. The depiction of Christ baring the cross on the road to Calvary was a popular subject. As many merchants were protestants this image would be a reminder of sacrifice and forgiveness. It would also be symbolic of how the Dutch was excepting of everyone, especially those in exile during the Renaissance wars.
The Fall of Phaeton, Peter Paul Rubens, 1604
Around 1600, Rubens, who had been trained in classical ideals and philosophy, traveled from Antwerp to Italy, learning and being inspired by many great masters, providing him with a multifaceted style and technique and I believe the merchants would appreciate his traveling background. The story of Phaeton is filled with drama, allegory and moralizing implications. It was seen as a parable on the devastating consequences of pride and lack of moderation.
Exercise: Research some classical landscape paintings
Landscape became popular as a genre in the seventeenth century, but differed from landscape painting as we know it today in that it tended to be seasoned with references to classical history or mythology. It wasn’t until the nineteenth century that landscape became established as a truly independent genre. The exception to this was the Netherlands, where landscape had been popular since the founding of the Dutch republic in the seventeenth century.
The French painter Claude Lorrain, who trained and spent most of his life in Rome, is widely regarded as the founding father of the classical landscape. See, for example, his Landscape with the Father of Psyche sacrificing to Apollo.
Classical landscape artists like Lorrain made use of both linear and aerial perspective in their work. Do some research into the theory and practice of perspective. You could try experimenting with linear perspective for yourself by making some perspective drawings in your sketchbook.
The French painter Claude Lorrain, who trained and spent most of his life in Rome, is widely regarded as the founding father of the classical landscape. See, for example, his Landscape with the Father of Psyche sacrificing to Apollo.
Classical landscape artists like Lorrain made use of both linear and aerial perspective in their work. Do some research into the theory and practice of perspective. You could try experimenting with linear perspective for yourself by making some perspective drawings in your sketchbook.
Classical Landscape Art
This was the depiction of natural scenery mountains, valleys, trees, rivers, and forests. Artists have been painting landscape since ancient times, when the Greeks and Romans created wall paintings of landscapes and gardens capes. However, after the fall of the Roman Empire, landscapes declined and became seen only as a setting for religious and figural scenes. With the rise of appreciating life and nature during the Renaissance, the landscape made a comeback. It became a particularly popular subject in the Netherlands, though they were still often used as the settings for biblical, mythological, or historical scenes.
The classical landscape was perfected by Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain who both spent most of theri careers drawing inspiration from the Roman countryside, trying to capture an ideal landscape to the likes of Arcadia. a legendary place in ancient Greece known for its quiet pastoral beauty.
This was the depiction of natural scenery mountains, valleys, trees, rivers, and forests. Artists have been painting landscape since ancient times, when the Greeks and Romans created wall paintings of landscapes and gardens capes. However, after the fall of the Roman Empire, landscapes declined and became seen only as a setting for religious and figural scenes. With the rise of appreciating life and nature during the Renaissance, the landscape made a comeback. It became a particularly popular subject in the Netherlands, though they were still often used as the settings for biblical, mythological, or historical scenes.
The classical landscape was perfected by Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain who both spent most of theri careers drawing inspiration from the Roman countryside, trying to capture an ideal landscape to the likes of Arcadia. a legendary place in ancient Greece known for its quiet pastoral beauty.
Claude Lorrain
He is considered one of the most prestigious historical landscape painters. He was not the innovator of landscapes but he was one of the first to introduce the sun into his images, like Seaport at sunset (1639). His painting, The Father of Psyche Sacrificing at the Temple of Apollo is of a story told in the Roman Apuleius's novel, The Golden Ass Book 4. It is of the King praying for his daughter, Psyche, to find a good husband. However, Venus condemns her to marry evil creatures due to her jealousy of Psyche's renowned beauty. |
Nicolas Poussin
A French painter and draftsman who founded French Classical tradition. He specialized in historical paintings depicting dramatic biblical and mythological scenes. His work is characterized by its rich and colourful clarity. In Pastoral Landscape with a Mill, you can see that he is ultimately concerned with the harmonious and idealized depiction of nature. He mastered the use of aerial and linear perspective to make his images feel realistic and lifelike. His paintings were a work of poetry and luminous light. |
Pieter Bruegel, the Elder
He was one of the greatest Flemish painters during the 16th century and a master landscape painter. He often depicted vivid and witty peasant scenes. He often depicted imaginary landscape with an elevated and panoramic view, as can be seen in Landscape with the Flight into Egypt. In his earlier paintings, there were often many figures in the landscape, but as the landscape genre grew more popular, he began including less figures. What is particularly beautiful about this composition, is the narrative he creates with the fantastical setting and the figures. |
Another great trend in landscape art started by the Dutch artists was the creation of vast nature scenes. Atmospheric and moody expansive clouds were used to create a sense of enormity by using them to fill much of the composition. The placement of small figures were also metaphoric in showing how humans are merely a small speck in relation to the almighty earth. The works of Jacob van Ruisdael, Aelbert Cuyp, and Meindert Hobbema are great examples of this.
Perspective
All the artist above have used a combination of linear and aerial perspective to achieve their realistic, captivating paintings with a great sense of depth. The viewer feels drawn into these landscapes, as though you were standing nearby and looking out with the artist.
Linear Perspective
All of these artists have a fine grip on perspective. It is more apparent in the paintings with buildings and large consecutive features. They have identified a vanishing point and really managed to draw in the view. Their ability to proportion objects according to distance and size further adds to their success. Below are examples of how the vanishing point has been identified.
All the artist above have used a combination of linear and aerial perspective to achieve their realistic, captivating paintings with a great sense of depth. The viewer feels drawn into these landscapes, as though you were standing nearby and looking out with the artist.
Linear Perspective
All of these artists have a fine grip on perspective. It is more apparent in the paintings with buildings and large consecutive features. They have identified a vanishing point and really managed to draw in the view. Their ability to proportion objects according to distance and size further adds to their success. Below are examples of how the vanishing point has been identified.
Aerial Perspective
Especially when painting a very natural scene, aerial perspective is useful in creating depth. The above artists understand how colours fade and become duller towards the horizon. They have all used the foreground, middleground and background areas to help identify a three dimensional space. If we take Landscape with the Flight into Egypt as an example, we see that that coulours and shapes are particularly crisp in the foregrounds. Moving to the middle ground, details are a bit looser and colour intensity is toned down. The close we get to the background, which is also in this case where he has the horizon, the lines and details become more hazy and colours are muted.
Especially when painting a very natural scene, aerial perspective is useful in creating depth. The above artists understand how colours fade and become duller towards the horizon. They have all used the foreground, middleground and background areas to help identify a three dimensional space. If we take Landscape with the Flight into Egypt as an example, we see that that coulours and shapes are particularly crisp in the foregrounds. Moving to the middle ground, details are a bit looser and colour intensity is toned down. The close we get to the background, which is also in this case where he has the horizon, the lines and details become more hazy and colours are muted.
Exercise: Create a version of a Dutch still life or interior
Historians point to the rise of still-life painting in seventeenth-century Netherlands but still life was used in classical times as a decorative theme for murals. Medieval altarpieces, when closed, showed still life scenes, and there are also links with mosaic decoration and intarsia wooden panels. A flower painting, for example, will typically represent an abundance of different blooms, often with insects or even larger animals like lizards. The botanical accuracy of such paintings may be less than in plates engraved for books, but the artist’s skill is evident nonetheless.
Although the more famous still-life artists are men, there were a number of women painters active in this genre, including Clara Peeters, Maria van Oosterwyck (internationally renowned for her flower paintings) and Rachel Ruysch. In the eighteenth century, Mary Moser was one of only two female founder members of the British Royal Academy. Women artists were excluded from life drawing classes so history or mythological painting and figure painting were largely closed to them.
The more domestic nature of still life enabled a wider participation.
Still life could be more than a demonstration of an artist’s skill. The choice of objects in a picture frequently had an underlying significance. Paintings of this sort are often known as ‘vanitas’ paintings. For example, the opulence of Still Life with Drinking-Horn by Willem Kalf was a compliment to the prestige of the prominent guild of Dutch archers who commissioned it. You can view this painting and read more about it on the National Gallery website www.nationalgallery.org.uk
Before you start to make your own version, study the iconography of still life paintings, which can be quite complex. For example, the skull or burnt-out candle signifies mortality; the lute, whose music dies away in the air, recalls the passing of
time.
Still Life iconography
Still life paintings were also referred to as Vanitas (Latin for vanity). They often contained a central theme, moral message or allegory. They serve to remind the viewer of death, the fragility of human life, and the brevity of our existence.
One of the popular themes that artists depicted was harvested foods, like fruit,vegetables and fish, a reminder of mankind's ingenuity, hard work and perseverance. Food also signifies abundance, riches, and the bounty of the upper class. Decaying food served to show mortality and death.
The Christian Church also made a strong allegorical impact on artists who used to the battle between good and evil in their paintings as well. For example having a candle and a skull in the same composition could represent the contrast between life and death. Candles could represent faith and the light of Christ, while the skull represents death and mortality, or potentially something demonic. Feathers may also be used in religious works to represent freedom and hope.
Books, maps and globes were also popular, pointing to man's thirst for learning, knowledge and exploring.
Flowers were also popular and at times even small bugs and birds were included. Different flowers hold different meanings. They can symbolize innocence, the four seasons, or religious symbols. The rose for instance, stands for love, the lily for purity, and the sunflower for devotion. Birds are a symbol of resurrection while be easier and butterflies mean hope and fragility.
Although the more famous still-life artists are men, there were a number of women painters active in this genre, including Clara Peeters, Maria van Oosterwyck (internationally renowned for her flower paintings) and Rachel Ruysch. In the eighteenth century, Mary Moser was one of only two female founder members of the British Royal Academy. Women artists were excluded from life drawing classes so history or mythological painting and figure painting were largely closed to them.
The more domestic nature of still life enabled a wider participation.
Still life could be more than a demonstration of an artist’s skill. The choice of objects in a picture frequently had an underlying significance. Paintings of this sort are often known as ‘vanitas’ paintings. For example, the opulence of Still Life with Drinking-Horn by Willem Kalf was a compliment to the prestige of the prominent guild of Dutch archers who commissioned it. You can view this painting and read more about it on the National Gallery website www.nationalgallery.org.uk
Before you start to make your own version, study the iconography of still life paintings, which can be quite complex. For example, the skull or burnt-out candle signifies mortality; the lute, whose music dies away in the air, recalls the passing of
time.
Still Life iconography
Still life paintings were also referred to as Vanitas (Latin for vanity). They often contained a central theme, moral message or allegory. They serve to remind the viewer of death, the fragility of human life, and the brevity of our existence.
One of the popular themes that artists depicted was harvested foods, like fruit,vegetables and fish, a reminder of mankind's ingenuity, hard work and perseverance. Food also signifies abundance, riches, and the bounty of the upper class. Decaying food served to show mortality and death.
The Christian Church also made a strong allegorical impact on artists who used to the battle between good and evil in their paintings as well. For example having a candle and a skull in the same composition could represent the contrast between life and death. Candles could represent faith and the light of Christ, while the skull represents death and mortality, or potentially something demonic. Feathers may also be used in religious works to represent freedom and hope.
Books, maps and globes were also popular, pointing to man's thirst for learning, knowledge and exploring.
Flowers were also popular and at times even small bugs and birds were included. Different flowers hold different meanings. They can symbolize innocence, the four seasons, or religious symbols. The rose for instance, stands for love, the lily for purity, and the sunflower for devotion. Birds are a symbol of resurrection while be easier and butterflies mean hope and fragility.
Still life Painting with Tea Pot and Flowers
I was keen to try out a composition with fruit and looked at several images for inspiration. I like how artists often incorporate reflections sot I wanted to have something that would bounce light and colours. I used an impasto technique for painting it as I thought this would also add texture and depth. I kept the colours quite vibrant and lively, very unlike the paintings featured above. But as the fruit represents wealth and good health, I also thought about what they meant to me, and fruit makes me happy. therefore I wanted my colour scheme to reflect the joy I feel when looking at fruit
I was keen to try out a composition with fruit and looked at several images for inspiration. I like how artists often incorporate reflections sot I wanted to have something that would bounce light and colours. I used an impasto technique for painting it as I thought this would also add texture and depth. I kept the colours quite vibrant and lively, very unlike the paintings featured above. But as the fruit represents wealth and good health, I also thought about what they meant to me, and fruit makes me happy. therefore I wanted my colour scheme to reflect the joy I feel when looking at fruit
Interiors
The interior as a genre in painting is primarily associated with the seventeenth- century Dutch masters such as Vermeer or Pieter de Hooch and persisted in the eighteenth century in the art of Chardin and others. In the nineteenth century, interiors provided the setting for popular narrative or anecdotal pictures of everyday life – often with moral overtones. This is sometimes confusingly referred to as ‘genre painting’. The key issues for an interior view are space, light and the relationship of any figures to the setting. In some pictures figures are of less importance, most notably in the church interiors for which Pieter Saenredam is famous; seventeenth-century Dutch paintings of church interiors became very popular in the nineteenth century. Note the use of linear perspective to draw the viewer’s eye through the interior, both in church interiors and in the domestic interiors of de Hooch and others. The painted interior was not necessarily merely domestic or decorative. You’ve already looked at Las Meninas, Velásquez’s complex painting of the daughter of the Spanish king and her servants.
The interior as a genre in painting is primarily associated with the seventeenth- century Dutch masters such as Vermeer or Pieter de Hooch and persisted in the eighteenth century in the art of Chardin and others. In the nineteenth century, interiors provided the setting for popular narrative or anecdotal pictures of everyday life – often with moral overtones. This is sometimes confusingly referred to as ‘genre painting’. The key issues for an interior view are space, light and the relationship of any figures to the setting. In some pictures figures are of less importance, most notably in the church interiors for which Pieter Saenredam is famous; seventeenth-century Dutch paintings of church interiors became very popular in the nineteenth century. Note the use of linear perspective to draw the viewer’s eye through the interior, both in church interiors and in the domestic interiors of de Hooch and others. The painted interior was not necessarily merely domestic or decorative. You’ve already looked at Las Meninas, Velásquez’s complex painting of the daughter of the Spanish king and her servants.
Pieter Saenredam
Saenredam was a pioneering Dutch painter best known for his interior church scenes.He was among the first architectural painters to emphasise topographical accuracy in his drawings. However he often played around with variations in proprtions for pictorial effect. He was particularly interested in the depiction of natural light flooding vast and complex interiors. In Grote Kerk ar Haarlem he subtly altered the perspective to create effects of greater spaciousness and luminosity. |
Diego Velázquez
He was a famous Spanish painter during the Baroque period. Well known for his scores of portraits of the royal family, of which Las Meninas is the most famous. It could be called a royal portrait as at its center is Infanta Margarita Teresa, also known as the Holy Roman Empress, Archduchess consort of Austria, and Queen consort of Hungary and Bohemia. She is surrounded by her maids of honour and other servants and even Velazquez himself. It is a kind of behind-the-scenes look at the Spanish court. Velázquez is described as the forerunner for impressionism. His paintings style can be described as fluid and free. Despite this abstract style, however, Velázquez still manages to convey a sense of utter realism and liveliness. He has used perspective well in creating a receding space, especially having the doorway way back with the figure on the lit stairway. It draws the viewer right through the room. |
Visit a town or country house
As I currently live in Hong Kong, it is simply not possible for me to gain access to a country house or apartment for this task. I have chosen to do a report on Chestnut Hall in Georgia based on the information and videos I was able to find online.
View my report here.
View my report here.
Gallery Visits
In Central in Hong Kong there is a collection of small Art galleries in close proximity to one another, which makes it quite easy to use a few hours and visit all of them. They mostly show collections of Asian artists, but now and again the put together a collection of Western art. There was a collection of Paper Compositions by Chun Kwang which is called the Aggregation series. He uses triangular shaped paper to build intricate and three dimensional pieces. They almost appear to be growing in front of your eyes. The artist notes that he is trying to explore the gap between the ideal and reality. By far my favorite pieces were metal sculptures made by Seo Young Deok. His use of every day metal materials to create faces and bodies is poetic. The shine of the metals also provide a sense of movement as the light reflects differently depending on where you stand.