Introduction
Why is it important for students of art history to study classical art? We’ve touched Classical art – Greek and, later, Roman art – lies at the heart of the western ‘canon’. Indeed the word ‘canon’ comes from the Greek for a rule or measuring stick. These ideas were to be of particular importance to Renaissance humanists who associated the Greek ideals of harmony and good order with moral virtue. As in later centuries, ‘classicism’ in art was associated with scientific rationalism and the belief that phenomena can be apprehended and will have the same value to everyone. Only in the nineteenth century was the canon challenged and expanded, for example to include pre-Renaissance art. A knowledge of classical art is therefore essential to an understanding of what came afterwards.
Greek art in the fifth century BC
This was a high point in Western Culture. Greek art was not primarily religious but rather with a focus on moral values and public service. Pottery, sculpting, drama, poetry, philosophy and architecture were among the art forms studied and pursued. When looking at architecture, the Parthenon is a perfect representation of the principles that governed their design. Not only is this because it seemed to encompass the classical ideals of symmetry, clarity and balance, but because its constituent parts had a mathematical relationship to each other which was founded on the proportions of one part of the human body to another. Male nude sculptures were also popular and were seen as the pursuit of human beauty
in which the virtues of dignity, detachment and self-mastery are implicit.
An architectural order describes a style of building. In Classical architecture, each order is readily identifiable by means of its proportions and profiles as well as by various aesthetic details. In the progression of architecture there were three main capital styles (orders):
1. Doric Style
This is when a transition was made from using materials like wood to more permanent materials like stone. It is characterized by a unadorned column that rests directly on the stylobate of the temple without a base. Columns were fluted and sturdy. At the top was a square metope that could be decorated. An example would be the Parthenon.
2. Ionic Style
Originated in Ionia. These columns had a base and a scroll-like volute at the top. The Erechtheion is an example of this. The proportions were more graceful, creating a slender and elegant profile.
3. Corinthian Style
It originated in Corinth. It is defined by a very elaborately carved capital at the top of the column. Carvings were based on the acanthus plant which grew around that area. Examples of this style include, Temple of Mars Ultor, the Pantheon in Rome, and the Maison Carrée in Nîmes.
in which the virtues of dignity, detachment and self-mastery are implicit.
An architectural order describes a style of building. In Classical architecture, each order is readily identifiable by means of its proportions and profiles as well as by various aesthetic details. In the progression of architecture there were three main capital styles (orders):
1. Doric Style
This is when a transition was made from using materials like wood to more permanent materials like stone. It is characterized by a unadorned column that rests directly on the stylobate of the temple without a base. Columns were fluted and sturdy. At the top was a square metope that could be decorated. An example would be the Parthenon.
2. Ionic Style
Originated in Ionia. These columns had a base and a scroll-like volute at the top. The Erechtheion is an example of this. The proportions were more graceful, creating a slender and elegant profile.
3. Corinthian Style
It originated in Corinth. It is defined by a very elaborately carved capital at the top of the column. Carvings were based on the acanthus plant which grew around that area. Examples of this style include, Temple of Mars Ultor, the Pantheon in Rome, and the Maison Carrée in Nîmes.
Source: Khan Academy
This progression reflects both changes in the political and economic nature of the cities that created them as well as the greater malleability of the materials used and improvements in the processes of carving.
In pottery we also saw a progression from rigid geometric designs to more natural scenes, allowing for details and expression. In painting there is documentation of Greek painters of that time, such as Parrhasius and Zeuxis and of sculptors such as Phidias, the creator of the huge statue of Athena in the Parthenon, however, unfortunately non of the paintings have survived. That fact that the artists are documented indicates that they had a high status i society.
This progression reflects both changes in the political and economic nature of the cities that created them as well as the greater malleability of the materials used and improvements in the processes of carving.
In pottery we also saw a progression from rigid geometric designs to more natural scenes, allowing for details and expression. In painting there is documentation of Greek painters of that time, such as Parrhasius and Zeuxis and of sculptors such as Phidias, the creator of the huge statue of Athena in the Parthenon, however, unfortunately non of the paintings have survived. That fact that the artists are documented indicates that they had a high status i society.
Greek art in the fourth century BC
This century can be identified by its growing concern with style and elegance. Artist were experimenting more with the manipulation of materials. It was during this century that Praxiteles, of Athens, the son of Cephisodotus the Elder, carved the first female nude statue. This was during s time when society was very male dominated and me like Plato so woman as mere servants whose only purpose was to bear children. Generally young, well built boys were used as inspiration for sculptures, setting a high erotic standard for male beauty, not obtainable by most. Aphrodite of Cnidus by Praxiteles is one of his most famous works as she became a model for painters and sculptors alike. Another of his works, Hermes and Dionysus, heralded a new emphasis on grace, movement and attention to detail.
With the death of Alexander the Great and other influences from around Europe and the East, works became more introspective and spiritual, like The Dying Gaul by Epigonus. Works continued to become more symbolic, whith figures representing love, courage, strife or luck. It also it led to the creation of distorted figures, as in the sculptures of Lysippus,
The Greeks considered themselves to be superior to other cultures. Their civilization consisted of several small autonomous states who were often at was with each other. Despite this they were the first proposers of democracy while at the same time being highly conscious of creating a single culture. One where speech, rituals and customs should by common. This is included setting a high standard of excellence for the creation of arts. They set the first canon of beauty, which mostly consisted in the idealized male nude.
Archaic Period
In 1300 BC the Helladic palaces were invaded and the country experienced a lapse in arts and literature for the next 500 years. All that survived during this time was bronze works and pottery, of which pottery was the most significant. Vases, cups, jugs and bowls were made with fine quality. They were boldly symmetrical and geometric with an even surface, baring hand painted decoration.
Having trading posts in Syria and Egypt, the Greeks were later influenced by their works in monumental sculpture. They were still driven by their own ideas of beauty and continued to use an empirical approach for sculpting, they did however start using stone and marble.
Works during the late seventh century BC was known as Archiac, generally consisting of a limited number of viewpoints. Most of those that have survived are of male nude youths. It is during this time of maturing that the Greeks believed men to be most like the gods. Sculptors then became more obsessed with representing a realistic, albeit idealized, depiction of the human form. This is when we start seeing more dimensional depictions of the body as well as the incorporation of fore shorting.
Classical Period
The period between the fifth century BC Persian war and the unification in Greece in 338 BC. The Greeks defeat of the Persians further convinced them of their superiority and this lead to a great growth in the arts. It is referred to as classical due to the superior quality of the works produced during this time. Though paintings and sculptures did not survive much from this era, there is a lot of literature and architectural evidence of the excellence of visual arts.
The Parthenon is a great example of Classical Greek Art. It is a temple built on the Athenian Acropolis for the goddess Athena. It is carefully built with all parts relating to each other in scale and size. It has a rare combination of sensuality and majesty. It is a Doric temple that show cases the use of stone columns, a technique the Greeks learned from the Egyptians, though adapted according to their needs and beliefs. Columns were built oblique, yet when viewed from a distance appear parallel. As the Ionic order followed we saw an emphasis on ornaments. An increasing amount of detail and expression was added to buildings and sculptures. This is particularly evident in the draperies used around figures that appear heavier and more voluminous. Sculptors further experimented by adding poses or gestures that indicate movement, no making the work feel less static and giving it the appearance of life. The Greeks incredible ability to use lines, rhythm and symmetry was to become the Classical Canon, influencing Roman arts and later European arts. It was the Greek influence of naturalism over all that would differentiate art in Europe overall.
Late Classical Period
In the fourth century BC there is a decline (or change) in the arts. This is due to the notion of regularization and added embellishments. This is when the Corinthian style took over with its used of acanthus leaves to adorn architecture. Much of this seems to be driven by wealth as they saw the embellishments to be a symbol of wealth and luxury. This period also saw an increased use of gold in pottery and coins.
Animal Style
The Scythians, which were a nomad civilization on the northern shores of the Black Sea developed the so-called 'animal-style'. They consisted of hunters and gatherers moving about in wagons to where agriculture took them. They were governed by their own customs, but were definitely valued Greek craftsmanship. Most of their animal style artifact were found in tombs which were set up to honor and adorn the rulers or famous warriors and their families. It generally consisted of bronze and gold works containing the shapes of animals, usually deer, wolves and large felines. They often appeared in an abstract way as limbs seemed to merge into another. It was their unique sense of form that distinguishes them from other Mediterranean art.
The Iron Age
The early part of the Iron Age is referred to as Hallstatt, a site in the Upper Austrian Salzkammergut region and later part of the Iron age called La Tene, the east end of Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland.
Hallsatt art was very geometric in style and considered to be more technical rather than aesthetic. It had a typical bird motif which could be traced back to late Helladic times in Greece. The use of wagons, stags and warriors in their art also shows a Scythian influence.
La Tene came about when the Celts came in to contact with Greek influences. It is characterized by S-shapes, spirals, and round patterns symmetrically. It also seems to have taken great influences from Scythian art, like theri use of the lithe wolf-like animal.
Iberia
It developed mid sixth century BC with Phoenician and Greek influence. This influence is most notable in their large stone carvings of life-like three dimensional figures.
Sardinia
The most notable Helladic Greece influence can be seen in the architecture here.
Etruscans
The Etruscans, alongside the Greeks, were of the first civilizations who developed the earliest true cities in Europe. Due to their many natural resources they were involved with trade with the Greeks, Phoenicians and Egyptians. They often imported pottery to adorn their tombs and paintings in tombs often represented the Hellenic style of decoration. We also see a Greek influence in the statues through their use of drapery and factual portraits, though they were not as elegant. When looking at their architecture, they also favored symmetry and adornment. The Etruscans clearly viewed Greek art as a status symbol, and as they were growing in wealth, pieces grew in opulence, as evidenced in their tombs. The Etruscans were later conquered by the Romans and absorbed into their empire. This had a significant influence of Roman art and culture.
Archaic Period
In 1300 BC the Helladic palaces were invaded and the country experienced a lapse in arts and literature for the next 500 years. All that survived during this time was bronze works and pottery, of which pottery was the most significant. Vases, cups, jugs and bowls were made with fine quality. They were boldly symmetrical and geometric with an even surface, baring hand painted decoration.
Having trading posts in Syria and Egypt, the Greeks were later influenced by their works in monumental sculpture. They were still driven by their own ideas of beauty and continued to use an empirical approach for sculpting, they did however start using stone and marble.
Works during the late seventh century BC was known as Archiac, generally consisting of a limited number of viewpoints. Most of those that have survived are of male nude youths. It is during this time of maturing that the Greeks believed men to be most like the gods. Sculptors then became more obsessed with representing a realistic, albeit idealized, depiction of the human form. This is when we start seeing more dimensional depictions of the body as well as the incorporation of fore shorting.
Classical Period
The period between the fifth century BC Persian war and the unification in Greece in 338 BC. The Greeks defeat of the Persians further convinced them of their superiority and this lead to a great growth in the arts. It is referred to as classical due to the superior quality of the works produced during this time. Though paintings and sculptures did not survive much from this era, there is a lot of literature and architectural evidence of the excellence of visual arts.
The Parthenon is a great example of Classical Greek Art. It is a temple built on the Athenian Acropolis for the goddess Athena. It is carefully built with all parts relating to each other in scale and size. It has a rare combination of sensuality and majesty. It is a Doric temple that show cases the use of stone columns, a technique the Greeks learned from the Egyptians, though adapted according to their needs and beliefs. Columns were built oblique, yet when viewed from a distance appear parallel. As the Ionic order followed we saw an emphasis on ornaments. An increasing amount of detail and expression was added to buildings and sculptures. This is particularly evident in the draperies used around figures that appear heavier and more voluminous. Sculptors further experimented by adding poses or gestures that indicate movement, no making the work feel less static and giving it the appearance of life. The Greeks incredible ability to use lines, rhythm and symmetry was to become the Classical Canon, influencing Roman arts and later European arts. It was the Greek influence of naturalism over all that would differentiate art in Europe overall.
Late Classical Period
In the fourth century BC there is a decline (or change) in the arts. This is due to the notion of regularization and added embellishments. This is when the Corinthian style took over with its used of acanthus leaves to adorn architecture. Much of this seems to be driven by wealth as they saw the embellishments to be a symbol of wealth and luxury. This period also saw an increased use of gold in pottery and coins.
Animal Style
The Scythians, which were a nomad civilization on the northern shores of the Black Sea developed the so-called 'animal-style'. They consisted of hunters and gatherers moving about in wagons to where agriculture took them. They were governed by their own customs, but were definitely valued Greek craftsmanship. Most of their animal style artifact were found in tombs which were set up to honor and adorn the rulers or famous warriors and their families. It generally consisted of bronze and gold works containing the shapes of animals, usually deer, wolves and large felines. They often appeared in an abstract way as limbs seemed to merge into another. It was their unique sense of form that distinguishes them from other Mediterranean art.
The Iron Age
The early part of the Iron Age is referred to as Hallstatt, a site in the Upper Austrian Salzkammergut region and later part of the Iron age called La Tene, the east end of Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland.
Hallsatt art was very geometric in style and considered to be more technical rather than aesthetic. It had a typical bird motif which could be traced back to late Helladic times in Greece. The use of wagons, stags and warriors in their art also shows a Scythian influence.
La Tene came about when the Celts came in to contact with Greek influences. It is characterized by S-shapes, spirals, and round patterns symmetrically. It also seems to have taken great influences from Scythian art, like theri use of the lithe wolf-like animal.
Iberia
It developed mid sixth century BC with Phoenician and Greek influence. This influence is most notable in their large stone carvings of life-like three dimensional figures.
Sardinia
The most notable Helladic Greece influence can be seen in the architecture here.
Etruscans
The Etruscans, alongside the Greeks, were of the first civilizations who developed the earliest true cities in Europe. Due to their many natural resources they were involved with trade with the Greeks, Phoenicians and Egyptians. They often imported pottery to adorn their tombs and paintings in tombs often represented the Hellenic style of decoration. We also see a Greek influence in the statues through their use of drapery and factual portraits, though they were not as elegant. When looking at their architecture, they also favored symmetry and adornment. The Etruscans clearly viewed Greek art as a status symbol, and as they were growing in wealth, pieces grew in opulence, as evidenced in their tombs. The Etruscans were later conquered by the Romans and absorbed into their empire. This had a significant influence of Roman art and culture.
The eclecticism of Roman culture
By looking at Greek culture in history or any culture for that matter we learn that cultures are not formed in isolation, but through many influences. The Romans were now different, taking many influences in their development, particularly from the Etruscans. Rome’s preoccupation with Greece and with the other cultures it absorbed begs the question of what was distinct about its own artistic contribution. Two important contributions they made on their own would be portrait sculpture and the inscriptions that the Romans placed on triumphal arches and columns throughout their empire. The Romans also brought additional practical and logical skills to their art. While the Greeks were famed as architects, the Romans excelled as engineers and as the creators of bridges, aquifers and roads. Standardized minted coins were popular as well as portrait busts of the emperor to symbolize power. Their obsession with Greecian art lead to them making thousands of copies of works. Many of these works and artists are only known today because of the Roman copies. The Laocoon and His Sons is famous Greek sculpture that served as a model for much of the Roman's art.
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Roman painting
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries a number of wall paintings were found in the House of the Mysteries. These included scenes of a woman being stripped and flagellated, portraits of families and images of fruit and fish. Roman artists were not really seen in high esteem at the time, as the were considered copiers who worked mechanically. The most popular form of painting was Frescos, generally depicting landscapes. Mosaic were also popular. These had a variety of subjects, including portraits and still life scenes, often depicted with more vibrant colours.
Roman architecture
Roman architecture inherited the classical orders of Greece, though they made their own advance. They incorporated the use of arches, vaults and cement, which meant that they could work much faster. The Coliseum and Pantheon are great examples of Roman architecture and advances.
Useful Terminology:
Useful Terminology:
- stoa - In Ancient Greece, a walkway with a roof supported by colonnades, often with a wall on one side; a portico.
- orthogonal - In linear perspective drawing, the diagonal line pointing to the vanishing point; sometimes referred to as vanishing or convergence line.
- acanthus - An ornament that resembles the foliage or leaves of Acanthus spinosus that is used in the capitals of the Corinthian and composite orders.
- abacus - A flat slab that forms the uppermost member or division of the capital of a column.
- volute - The spiral curve on an Ionic capital.
- dipteral - Having a double row of columns on each flank, as well as in the front and rear; often said of a temple.
- colonnade - A series of columns at regular intervals.
The Romans urban planning was all about civil convenience. The basic plan consisted of a central forum with city services, surrounded by a compact, rectilinear grid of streets. A river sometimes flowed near or through the city, providing water, transport, and sewage disposal. Hundreds of towns and cities were built by the Romans throughout their empire. They would lay out the streets at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All roads were equal in width and length, except for two, which were slightly wider than the others. The two intersected in the middle to form the centre of the grid. All roads were made of carefully fitted flag stones and filled in with smaller, hard-packed rocks and pebbles. Bridges were constructed where needed. Each square marked by four roads with apartments in the middle.
Exercise: Research the Roman occupation
Are there any Roman remains or artefacts available to see in your area? Use your local library, museum, antiquarian society or the internet as a starting point. Make illustrated notes in your learning log.
Rome was already a rich and powerful country. For the rulers, conquering Britain was more about proving their worth, than for any economic gain. Cesar lead armies to invade Rome in 55 and 54 BC but failed. Later, in 43 AD, the Romans returned, lead by emperor Claudius who saw the invasion as an opportunity to secure his throne. They landed on the Cent cost and conquered the southern half of Britain. Life for the Celts living in Cent had up to then been quite simple and mostly consisted of farming. During the 350 years of occupation there were a lot of differences noticed.
![Picture](/uploads/4/9/1/1/49115679/published/aerial-view-of-oxford-street-in-the-west-end-of-london-with-up-to-a9j2ed.jpeg?1502179265)
Architecture:and Arts
Towns began to develop a distinctly Mediterranean look, with regular street grids, market squares, assembly rooms, temples, theatres, bathhouses, shopping malls and hotels. The most important structure of any new town was the fort and the town wall. Urban planners placed a high importance on public spaces, especially as politics and business dealings became more advanced, they made sure to have areas for relaxation and negotiation. The Romans were also known for building really straight long roads. Oxford Street in London (shown left) is a good example of this.
There was also a real boom in building houses and villas. For the native elite it became all about luxury living. This further promoted the growth of decorative arts like mosaics, frescos and pottery as people wanted there homes decorated to represent their status.
Towns began to develop a distinctly Mediterranean look, with regular street grids, market squares, assembly rooms, temples, theatres, bathhouses, shopping malls and hotels. The most important structure of any new town was the fort and the town wall. Urban planners placed a high importance on public spaces, especially as politics and business dealings became more advanced, they made sure to have areas for relaxation and negotiation. The Romans were also known for building really straight long roads. Oxford Street in London (shown left) is a good example of this.
There was also a real boom in building houses and villas. For the native elite it became all about luxury living. This further promoted the growth of decorative arts like mosaics, frescos and pottery as people wanted there homes decorated to represent their status.
Most of the architecture left from the roman occupation is actually many layers below the city streets, though there are still a few ruins remaining that can be visited by the public.
Seen on the right is a section of a Roman wall still standing in London, which at the time was known as Londinium. It was typical for a large city to be enclosed by a giant wall.that was a form of defense. Most other fragments still exist in basements, churches or have been moved to museums. The British museum in particular has a great selection of crafts and objects from Londinium. Their selection of mosaics shows how this was a popular art form of that time, mostly used to decorate walls and floors. |
Changing Lifestyle
Though the Romans took over the land, the rulers were still the celts from the region, however it did not take long for them to convert to Roman customs. They became Roman gentlemen, with a love of Greek myths, wine and politics. Having a rank meant success. The empire looked after these leaders well and in return they were loyal, ensuring to spread the empirical way of life to all citizens. As the empire and its expenses kept growing, it became more difficult for them to maintain towns and armies for defense, and with Britain always being under attack, it finally took its toll. Around 425 AD, Britain was no longer Romanized. It was a combination of factors, including a lack of funds, a revolt of citizens against taxes and garrisons who chose to demobilize.
Though the Romans took over the land, the rulers were still the celts from the region, however it did not take long for them to convert to Roman customs. They became Roman gentlemen, with a love of Greek myths, wine and politics. Having a rank meant success. The empire looked after these leaders well and in return they were loyal, ensuring to spread the empirical way of life to all citizens. As the empire and its expenses kept growing, it became more difficult for them to maintain towns and armies for defense, and with Britain always being under attack, it finally took its toll. Around 425 AD, Britain was no longer Romanized. It was a combination of factors, including a lack of funds, a revolt of citizens against taxes and garrisons who chose to demobilize.
Useful sources:
A Tour of Roman London
BBC History
BBC Primary History
Roman Brittain Documentary
Where to see Roman London
A Tour of Roman London
BBC History
BBC Primary History
Roman Brittain Documentary
Where to see Roman London
Other Occupations:
Rome conquered many of their neighbors. Their goal was not to plunder, but to expand their empire. This meant that they wanted their newly acquired towns or lands to be devoted and loyal to them. They achieved this by providing jobs and letting them keep some of their own traditions and religions. At least, this was the case for those all ready in power. For lower class citizens Roman rule did not always come with advantages. They were often used as slaves in agriculture or to help serve in the military. The Romans spread throughout the Mediterranean, occupying parts of Italy and up towards Spain. Turing in Italy is still a prime example of the urban street designs used by Roman architects (seen left). You can noticed the grid format of the city blocks. |
More examples of Roman Architecture in Western Architecture
Echoes of the tradition of the Roman Empire are still found in cities throughout the western world. Napoleon, who was crowned emperor in 1804 and he commissioned the some monuments and buildings that signified his glory and ability to rule and conquer. The Arc de Triomphe, the Vendôme column, topped by a bronze statue of Napoleon dressed in the style of a Roman Emperor and the Temple of Glory to his Army, now known as the church of the Madeleine, all built with distinct Roman architecture features.
Echoes of the tradition of the Roman Empire are still found in cities throughout the western world. Napoleon, who was crowned emperor in 1804 and he commissioned the some monuments and buildings that signified his glory and ability to rule and conquer. The Arc de Triomphe, the Vendôme column, topped by a bronze statue of Napoleon dressed in the style of a Roman Emperor and the Temple of Glory to his Army, now known as the church of the Madeleine, all built with distinct Roman architecture features.
During the late fourth century BC sarcophagi were to become a predominant form of sculpture through the Hellenistic and Roman eras. A sarcophagus is a house shaped structure with a pitched roof that provided a resting place for the deceased. It depicted intricate designs and carvings showing the beliefs of the after-life. They mark a change in the traditions of Greek art and show how other cultures were influencing art. Portraiture was another practice that became popular, where great ruler were immortalized and glorified in busts and sculpture.
The Hellenistic Period
Art
Hellenistic was a term originally used to distinguish Greek speakers from others in the empire. It also refers to the three centuries following Alexander the Great's death in 323 BC. During the same time the Roman empire dominated the Italian peninsula and later the whole Mediterranean. The Hellenistic rulers were all of Greek decent and continued the classic Greek culture. This is mostly evident in the way the cities were built. Cities had the pattern of the Greek polis, each containing a temple, assembly hall, theater, gymnasium, stoa and agora. Sculptures also edhered to the Greek ideal of beautiful human form. The cities grew wealthy and later influenced many cultures through their trade and industry.
They also contributed to very influential philosophies to civilization. The first, Stoicism, the philosophy that the wise live in harmony with the divine and are indifferent to the vicissitudes of fortune and to pleasure and pain. The second, Epicureanism, a philosophy based on the teachings of Epicurus, which is the devotion to pleasure, comfort, and high living, with a certain nicety of style. The Hellenistic period also saw great advancements in science and mathematics, like the discovery of specific gravity and the invention of the water pump. They also contributed greatly to visual arts, which was admired and collected by the Romans, like Medici Venus and Apollo Belvedere.
Hellenistic artist came a long way in creating a standard for art works. Sculptors like Praxiteles ans Lysippus and painters like Apelles were at the height of creating classic art. They helped inspire a norm which was later called a 'Classic Moment'. Hellenistic art also sparked great philosophies about art. Plato and Aristotle produced many writings on their views of art and sparked the first great debate. Plato on the one hand claiming that art can only ever be a copy and Aristotle who believed that art was an expression of an external form and the pleasure of recognizing it's likeness. His writings had a profound impact on artists and people's attitudes towards the arts, giving rise to patronage, fame and secularization.
Artist continued to fine tune their craft and works started taking on a more naturalistic approach, through the composition, expressions of subjects and even more notably, colour. With the rising fame of artists, works now became sought after for pleasure and decoration. Previous sculptures and works of idealized bodies, were being replaced with the strength of soul, a portrait that expressed character. As artists expanded their use natural form, pieces began to take on a sense of allegory. Subjects were now depicted sleeping, courageous, in love or other abstractions like lucky, forgetful and sad. They were intended to be interpreted and were possible alluding to the introspective Hellenistic way of thinking. Artist also began taking risks with scale and proportion and not just conforming to the golden mean ad Greek artist had previously. If you could characterize Hellenistic art with two main ideas it would be naturalism and rhetorical allegory.
Architecture
The Altar of Greece is a great example of how Hellenistic architecture was different from Classical Greek architecture. This large sculptural structure was the embodiment of expression, adorned with figures presented in dignity and nobility. The depth and details in the decorative carvings also used provided an intricate play of light, creating a chiaroscuro effect. In Greek architecture the outside of the building was always more important and mostly represented a facade. The Hellenistic architecture created a focus on both the inside and outside. Builders also began to consider the views and placement of buildings more. Urban settings were planned and considered, creating monumental civic buildings with similar adornments and decorative arts. This also spread to homes, with people also creating adornments using pictorial style wall paintings and mosaics, making them more opulent. Overall the architecture could be described as a combination of Ionic and Corinthian style, truly bringing a sense of theatrical grandeur. We continued to see this style under Roman rule.
Roman Painting and Mosaics
By the second century BC, the Romans had made themselves masters of the Italian peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and the South of France and Spain. The Roman upper class absorbed the Hellenistic culture. The use of mosaic continued to be popular, like the Battle of Issus. It is a great example of Classical art, creating a sens of movement and depth, with figures appearing natural. Mosaics could be set in walls or in floors, often using a rich variety of colours. Whole decorative walls were often used to visually enlarge rooms with illusion. Using painted columns, windows and figures to visually open up the space. The use of recession and perspective was important for this purpose. The Ixion Room in the House of Vettii is a great example of this. Portraiture was greatly cultivated by the Roman, especially in sculpture, but also in paintings. Portraits were vivid and often depicting contemporary life with affection and detail. Initially paintings were considered a lesser art form, but as collectors began to take in interest in painting, the status of painters began to rise and items became objects of luxury and status pieces.
The Hellenistic Period
Art
Hellenistic was a term originally used to distinguish Greek speakers from others in the empire. It also refers to the three centuries following Alexander the Great's death in 323 BC. During the same time the Roman empire dominated the Italian peninsula and later the whole Mediterranean. The Hellenistic rulers were all of Greek decent and continued the classic Greek culture. This is mostly evident in the way the cities were built. Cities had the pattern of the Greek polis, each containing a temple, assembly hall, theater, gymnasium, stoa and agora. Sculptures also edhered to the Greek ideal of beautiful human form. The cities grew wealthy and later influenced many cultures through their trade and industry.
They also contributed to very influential philosophies to civilization. The first, Stoicism, the philosophy that the wise live in harmony with the divine and are indifferent to the vicissitudes of fortune and to pleasure and pain. The second, Epicureanism, a philosophy based on the teachings of Epicurus, which is the devotion to pleasure, comfort, and high living, with a certain nicety of style. The Hellenistic period also saw great advancements in science and mathematics, like the discovery of specific gravity and the invention of the water pump. They also contributed greatly to visual arts, which was admired and collected by the Romans, like Medici Venus and Apollo Belvedere.
Hellenistic artist came a long way in creating a standard for art works. Sculptors like Praxiteles ans Lysippus and painters like Apelles were at the height of creating classic art. They helped inspire a norm which was later called a 'Classic Moment'. Hellenistic art also sparked great philosophies about art. Plato and Aristotle produced many writings on their views of art and sparked the first great debate. Plato on the one hand claiming that art can only ever be a copy and Aristotle who believed that art was an expression of an external form and the pleasure of recognizing it's likeness. His writings had a profound impact on artists and people's attitudes towards the arts, giving rise to patronage, fame and secularization.
Artist continued to fine tune their craft and works started taking on a more naturalistic approach, through the composition, expressions of subjects and even more notably, colour. With the rising fame of artists, works now became sought after for pleasure and decoration. Previous sculptures and works of idealized bodies, were being replaced with the strength of soul, a portrait that expressed character. As artists expanded their use natural form, pieces began to take on a sense of allegory. Subjects were now depicted sleeping, courageous, in love or other abstractions like lucky, forgetful and sad. They were intended to be interpreted and were possible alluding to the introspective Hellenistic way of thinking. Artist also began taking risks with scale and proportion and not just conforming to the golden mean ad Greek artist had previously. If you could characterize Hellenistic art with two main ideas it would be naturalism and rhetorical allegory.
Architecture
The Altar of Greece is a great example of how Hellenistic architecture was different from Classical Greek architecture. This large sculptural structure was the embodiment of expression, adorned with figures presented in dignity and nobility. The depth and details in the decorative carvings also used provided an intricate play of light, creating a chiaroscuro effect. In Greek architecture the outside of the building was always more important and mostly represented a facade. The Hellenistic architecture created a focus on both the inside and outside. Builders also began to consider the views and placement of buildings more. Urban settings were planned and considered, creating monumental civic buildings with similar adornments and decorative arts. This also spread to homes, with people also creating adornments using pictorial style wall paintings and mosaics, making them more opulent. Overall the architecture could be described as a combination of Ionic and Corinthian style, truly bringing a sense of theatrical grandeur. We continued to see this style under Roman rule.
Roman Painting and Mosaics
By the second century BC, the Romans had made themselves masters of the Italian peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and the South of France and Spain. The Roman upper class absorbed the Hellenistic culture. The use of mosaic continued to be popular, like the Battle of Issus. It is a great example of Classical art, creating a sens of movement and depth, with figures appearing natural. Mosaics could be set in walls or in floors, often using a rich variety of colours. Whole decorative walls were often used to visually enlarge rooms with illusion. Using painted columns, windows and figures to visually open up the space. The use of recession and perspective was important for this purpose. The Ixion Room in the House of Vettii is a great example of this. Portraiture was greatly cultivated by the Roman, especially in sculpture, but also in paintings. Portraits were vivid and often depicting contemporary life with affection and detail. Initially paintings were considered a lesser art form, but as collectors began to take in interest in painting, the status of painters began to rise and items became objects of luxury and status pieces.
![Picture](/uploads/4/9/1/1/49115679/published/952765.jpg?1498030747)
Roman Architecture
Domestic Architecture
Roman builders combined their expertise in engineering and freedom of mind to create entirely new concepts in architectural space and mass. Urban design is an area where the particularly excelled. Creating systematized and uniformed civic structures, roads, drainage systems, bridges, aqueducts, apartment blocks (which began replacing single domus family homes) and various public buildings. Their most significant contribution to city planing was the basilica, a public building where courts were held, as well as serving other official and public functions. Another was public bath houses which was a lavish collection of hot and cold baths, a gymnasium and recreation rooms, for bothe the rich and the poor to enjoy. Richer families also began to move out into the suburbs sparking a rise in country villas. Atriums, courtyards and colonnades were popular features in their construction. The flow from on room to the next became harmonious with a high regard for axial symmetry.
Temples and Public Works
Architect developed a heightened sense of how the natural landscape could have a relationship with a building structure. A prime example of this is the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia, where builders transformed a whole hillside, composing an axial symmetry on a bold and massive scale. Temples became less important and conspicuous, than they were in Greece as politics began playing a more important role than religion. Temples designs took a back seat as Rome became more materialized. The use of marble became more prominent. Particularly as a means to decorate buildings with smooth colourful surfaces. But an even more important contribution that the Romans made, was the development of concrete. Arched architecture was another contribution, and were often used in the construction of bridges, aqueducts ans causeways. Proportions were symmetrical, graceful and light. The Pont du Gard is a good example.
The Colosseum and the inventions of concrete
The Colosseum is another great example of how the arch took center stage in Roman architecture. These are some images from my visit there in 2013.
Domestic Architecture
Roman builders combined their expertise in engineering and freedom of mind to create entirely new concepts in architectural space and mass. Urban design is an area where the particularly excelled. Creating systematized and uniformed civic structures, roads, drainage systems, bridges, aqueducts, apartment blocks (which began replacing single domus family homes) and various public buildings. Their most significant contribution to city planing was the basilica, a public building where courts were held, as well as serving other official and public functions. Another was public bath houses which was a lavish collection of hot and cold baths, a gymnasium and recreation rooms, for bothe the rich and the poor to enjoy. Richer families also began to move out into the suburbs sparking a rise in country villas. Atriums, courtyards and colonnades were popular features in their construction. The flow from on room to the next became harmonious with a high regard for axial symmetry.
Temples and Public Works
Architect developed a heightened sense of how the natural landscape could have a relationship with a building structure. A prime example of this is the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia, where builders transformed a whole hillside, composing an axial symmetry on a bold and massive scale. Temples became less important and conspicuous, than they were in Greece as politics began playing a more important role than religion. Temples designs took a back seat as Rome became more materialized. The use of marble became more prominent. Particularly as a means to decorate buildings with smooth colourful surfaces. But an even more important contribution that the Romans made, was the development of concrete. Arched architecture was another contribution, and were often used in the construction of bridges, aqueducts ans causeways. Proportions were symmetrical, graceful and light. The Pont du Gard is a good example.
The Colosseum and the inventions of concrete
The Colosseum is another great example of how the arch took center stage in Roman architecture. These are some images from my visit there in 2013.
Built in 70-72 AD, it is entirely composed of arches, using a rhythmic, horizontal and vertical repetition. Built for the use of gladiatorial combats and other spectacle games by the emperor of the Flavian family in the hopes to gain popularity. Concrete, marble and limestone was used. The Romans combination of cement, the arch and the vault, allowed them to build faster, larger and more flexible spaces without interior support. This idea of spacial conception is especially visible in Emperor Nero's Golden House. Building truly became a mold or a shell and could take the shape of whatever a builder desired. Concrete wall were often covered with mosaics, paintings or marble, making them more opulent. Domes really became one of the highlights of Roman design. They became a symbol of heaven and later went on to become an essential feature of Christian Features. The Pantheon (118-28 AD) is a good example. It was a temple initially built in dedication of the gods, but it was converted to a Christian church in 609.
Here are some images from my visit there in 2013:
Here are some images from my visit there in 2013:
Roman Sculpture
Emperor Hadrian, 117-38 AD, who had the Pantheon built, had a real obsession with Greek Sculpture. He had hundreds of sculptures made, mostly copies of original Greek works. Romans were also scrambling to collect original Greek works to adorn their homes. They were mostly produced in Athens or by Greek immigrant living in Rome. A popular sculpture in Rome was Laocoon and his Two Sons. Sculptors began to produce bodies in various poses which could be bought independently. Other artist could buy these and the simply add their own portrait heads, often the heads of imperial leaders.
A definition of Roman Art
The Romans greatest contributions to art was in architecture and literature. It is, however, much more difficult to define their visual arts. They took much inspiration of Greek, Hellenistic and eastern Mediteranean influences and due to their trading and commissions of works from various regions in is not easy to classify their specific style. Even so, it is possible to identify certain qualities that are commonly recognized in Roman art:
- Maturity of figures sculpted. Men were especially depicted with wrinkles and plainness, which for the Romans implied a full successful life.
- Propaganda was evident in many of their pieces. Showing the virtue of those who are working for Rome.
- Allegory - Important figures or moments were presented with combination of hard facts and abstract ideas
- Portraiture - Mostly of rulers and important men. This lead to the introduction and rise of busts, again to spread the idea of imperialism.
- The Roman arch - part sculpture, part architecture. Often used as monumental entrances to cities.
- Commemorative columns - A tall single column carved with figurative carvings commemorating important events.
- Narrative - As is seen in the carvings around temples and commemorative columns, they told the stories of events and leaders, sometimes spanning several years of history.
- Verisimilitude (Harsh realism) - they started moving away from the Greek idealized form, especially when carving faces and often showing them with unflattering realism and expression.
- Axial symmetry - used in architecture, when an objects appearance is unchanged if rotated around an axis.
- Monumental - Though this implies architecture, buildings were adorned with sculpture and painting and the Roman influence of building grandiose, decorative structures spread through much of the eastern Mediterranean.
- Shift to the soul - People became aware of their feelings, thoughts and reactions, either turning to philosophy or religion. This was mostly shown in their lives depicted on sarcophagi.
Emperor Hadrian, 117-38 AD, who had the Pantheon built, had a real obsession with Greek Sculpture. He had hundreds of sculptures made, mostly copies of original Greek works. Romans were also scrambling to collect original Greek works to adorn their homes. They were mostly produced in Athens or by Greek immigrant living in Rome. A popular sculpture in Rome was Laocoon and his Two Sons. Sculptors began to produce bodies in various poses which could be bought independently. Other artist could buy these and the simply add their own portrait heads, often the heads of imperial leaders.
A definition of Roman Art
The Romans greatest contributions to art was in architecture and literature. It is, however, much more difficult to define their visual arts. They took much inspiration of Greek, Hellenistic and eastern Mediteranean influences and due to their trading and commissions of works from various regions in is not easy to classify their specific style. Even so, it is possible to identify certain qualities that are commonly recognized in Roman art:
- Maturity of figures sculpted. Men were especially depicted with wrinkles and plainness, which for the Romans implied a full successful life.
- Propaganda was evident in many of their pieces. Showing the virtue of those who are working for Rome.
- Allegory - Important figures or moments were presented with combination of hard facts and abstract ideas
- Portraiture - Mostly of rulers and important men. This lead to the introduction and rise of busts, again to spread the idea of imperialism.
- The Roman arch - part sculpture, part architecture. Often used as monumental entrances to cities.
- Commemorative columns - A tall single column carved with figurative carvings commemorating important events.
- Narrative - As is seen in the carvings around temples and commemorative columns, they told the stories of events and leaders, sometimes spanning several years of history.
- Verisimilitude (Harsh realism) - they started moving away from the Greek idealized form, especially when carving faces and often showing them with unflattering realism and expression.
- Axial symmetry - used in architecture, when an objects appearance is unchanged if rotated around an axis.
- Monumental - Though this implies architecture, buildings were adorned with sculpture and painting and the Roman influence of building grandiose, decorative structures spread through much of the eastern Mediterranean.
- Shift to the soul - People became aware of their feelings, thoughts and reactions, either turning to philosophy or religion. This was mostly shown in their lives depicted on sarcophagi.
Museum Visit
I visited the Hong Kong Herritage Museum who were having a special exhibition: Inventing le Louvre: From Palace to Museum over 800 Years.
The exhibition illustrates the diversity and richness of the museum's collections, displaying paintings, sculptures, ceramics, tapestries, etc. The artworks in the collection are also from different periods. Along the way, the exhibition explores the contributions of Napoleon I and the visionary ideas of the "Republics" and intellectual movements that followed. Some of the highlights include Saint Sebastian Bound for Martyrdom (Circa 1617–1619) by Anthony van Dyck and the marble sculpture Jean de la Fontaine (1621–1695),Writer (1785) by Pierre Julien.
I thought it would be particularly useful for the upcoming task of drawing sculptures to be able to look at some up close and find some inspiration.
The exhibition illustrates the diversity and richness of the museum's collections, displaying paintings, sculptures, ceramics, tapestries, etc. The artworks in the collection are also from different periods. Along the way, the exhibition explores the contributions of Napoleon I and the visionary ideas of the "Republics" and intellectual movements that followed. Some of the highlights include Saint Sebastian Bound for Martyrdom (Circa 1617–1619) by Anthony van Dyck and the marble sculpture Jean de la Fontaine (1621–1695),Writer (1785) by Pierre Julien.
I thought it would be particularly useful for the upcoming task of drawing sculptures to be able to look at some up close and find some inspiration.
Exercise: Draw some classical figure sculptures
Draw or make tracings of some classical figure sculptures. Select a variety of subjects – men, boys, women, standing and sitting, clothed and nude – including Roman copies of Greek statues. If you’re lucky enough to be able to work from actual sculptures, that’s great – if not, work from images (the larger the better). When you’ve made several attempts, choose one drawing to develop further.
The statue of Laocoön and His Sons
I chose to develop this further as I am really drawn to the positioning and expression of this figure. This piece was completed with pastels and watercolours. I cropped the image to only focus on the father's face and physical struggle.
I chose to develop this further as I am really drawn to the positioning and expression of this figure. This piece was completed with pastels and watercolours. I cropped the image to only focus on the father's face and physical struggle.
Do your images help you to understand classical figures?
Most of these have a sense of romance behind them, creating a sense of admiration for the human form, albeit an idealized form. It is clear that there was a high emphasis on the shape and form of the body. When searching for the images, it was also evident that male sculptures far exceed female sculptures.
Have you noticed how each figure is represented – skillfully, accurately, clumsily, idealized, caricatured, etc.?
As mentioned above, there definitely is an impression of idealized form. The Roman (or more classical) sculptures tend to focus more on the body, the fact that figures are exposed and posed in softer ways, make them appear humble and more human, despite their perfect figures. The later sculptures have a more serious and distant feel. The sculptures now became a way of depicting status. Their heavy clothes, hair and stern expressions take away some of the romance and humanity depicting in the classical figures.
How do you interpret the figure?
First I would look at the positioning of the figure. The position implies movement or activity. Looking at their posture or height. If presented low and hunched, the viewer feels a sense of sorrow or sympathy, like The Dying Gaul, if presented strong, confident and face on, there is a sense of admiration or elevated status like Lapith and Centaur. Postures and angles are techniques still used, even in film and photography the status of a character can be implied through how they are framed on screen.
Next I would pay attention to their facial expression. Many of still connect more emotionally through facial expression. The lines on our faces and the look in our eyes will often reveal truths. With the sculptures I chose there is a real distinction between hard and soft. Euthydemus of Bactria, for example, has a stern and serious expression. He almost appears grumpy. As a viewer you want to respect him, but you also feel less interested in his story, because of the lack of emotion. Laocoon has a completely opposite impact on the viewer. The detail of each line on his face can keep the viewer engaged for hours. You find yourself feeling his pain and his sorry. His expression brings out his humanity and vulnerability.
When it comes to skill or accuracy, I suppose that would depend on who the subject is. As with any art, I feel that the artist should be able to create their own interpretations of the subject. If depicting an actual historical figure, there needs to be some accuracy, especially in the face, as you want people to recognize them, but if you are creating mythical or new characters, there should be a sense of imagination and story telling. Here the skill is more about how the piece creates a story, like with Sleeping Eros.
What’s the significance of the figure’s pose, for example?
A pose, as mentioned before, can create ideas of status or action. Croaching Aprodite for example has brought herself low, making her accessible to the people. It is a humbling position and one that implies service.
Does drawing or copying a work of art give you insights that you can’t get simply from annotating an image?
To be honest, the sketches themselves didn't necessarily help me to consider their purpose or meaning. When you annotate, you have to ask yourself more questions about what you are actually looking at and why.
Most of these have a sense of romance behind them, creating a sense of admiration for the human form, albeit an idealized form. It is clear that there was a high emphasis on the shape and form of the body. When searching for the images, it was also evident that male sculptures far exceed female sculptures.
Have you noticed how each figure is represented – skillfully, accurately, clumsily, idealized, caricatured, etc.?
As mentioned above, there definitely is an impression of idealized form. The Roman (or more classical) sculptures tend to focus more on the body, the fact that figures are exposed and posed in softer ways, make them appear humble and more human, despite their perfect figures. The later sculptures have a more serious and distant feel. The sculptures now became a way of depicting status. Their heavy clothes, hair and stern expressions take away some of the romance and humanity depicting in the classical figures.
How do you interpret the figure?
First I would look at the positioning of the figure. The position implies movement or activity. Looking at their posture or height. If presented low and hunched, the viewer feels a sense of sorrow or sympathy, like The Dying Gaul, if presented strong, confident and face on, there is a sense of admiration or elevated status like Lapith and Centaur. Postures and angles are techniques still used, even in film and photography the status of a character can be implied through how they are framed on screen.
Next I would pay attention to their facial expression. Many of still connect more emotionally through facial expression. The lines on our faces and the look in our eyes will often reveal truths. With the sculptures I chose there is a real distinction between hard and soft. Euthydemus of Bactria, for example, has a stern and serious expression. He almost appears grumpy. As a viewer you want to respect him, but you also feel less interested in his story, because of the lack of emotion. Laocoon has a completely opposite impact on the viewer. The detail of each line on his face can keep the viewer engaged for hours. You find yourself feeling his pain and his sorry. His expression brings out his humanity and vulnerability.
When it comes to skill or accuracy, I suppose that would depend on who the subject is. As with any art, I feel that the artist should be able to create their own interpretations of the subject. If depicting an actual historical figure, there needs to be some accuracy, especially in the face, as you want people to recognize them, but if you are creating mythical or new characters, there should be a sense of imagination and story telling. Here the skill is more about how the piece creates a story, like with Sleeping Eros.
What’s the significance of the figure’s pose, for example?
A pose, as mentioned before, can create ideas of status or action. Croaching Aprodite for example has brought herself low, making her accessible to the people. It is a humbling position and one that implies service.
Does drawing or copying a work of art give you insights that you can’t get simply from annotating an image?
To be honest, the sketches themselves didn't necessarily help me to consider their purpose or meaning. When you annotate, you have to ask yourself more questions about what you are actually looking at and why.
Medieval art
Sculptures and stained glass windows were popular art forms during this time. These were mostly present in cathedrals where they vividly told the stories of the saints, religion and spiritual journeys and kept worshipers in awe. Medieval manuscripts also contained beautifully stylized illustrations that complimented the holy text, though these were only ever available to an elite because they were produced by specially-trained monks employed to work for royal, noble or high ecclesiastic patrons.
In 814, western Europe was invaded by the Vikings, the Muslims and the Magyars and a new balance between state and church emerged. This started influencing scenes depicted in art like the double-sided Cross of Lothar. During the eleventh century the mass and austerity of Romanesque churches in Florence and Siena were lightened by the introduction of classical elements and of geometric marble patterns and pillars. There was also an introduction of Gothic emphasis through the use of vertical columns, pointed arches and stained glass.
Later in the 1200s the classic tradition of the male nude reemerged. There was also a revival of recessive space, three-dimensional figures and the portrayal of restrained and credible emotions. Frescos also became more popular as they were not as expensive as mosaics.
In 814, western Europe was invaded by the Vikings, the Muslims and the Magyars and a new balance between state and church emerged. This started influencing scenes depicted in art like the double-sided Cross of Lothar. During the eleventh century the mass and austerity of Romanesque churches in Florence and Siena were lightened by the introduction of classical elements and of geometric marble patterns and pillars. There was also an introduction of Gothic emphasis through the use of vertical columns, pointed arches and stained glass.
Later in the 1200s the classic tradition of the male nude reemerged. There was also a revival of recessive space, three-dimensional figures and the portrayal of restrained and credible emotions. Frescos also became more popular as they were not as expensive as mosaics.
We have already learned much about the Roman empire and their strength. There dedication to creating systems and structures as well as their ability to add to the empire. During the earlier parts of their reign, religion took a back seat. They became more preoccupied with business and philosophy. Around the same time St. Paul was spreading the message of Christianity around Asia Minor and Greece. He brought this message to Rome who at first did not take kindly to Christians, forcing them to meet underground and in secret. They were often fed to the lions or severely punished for not submitting to the Empire. In AD 313, the Emperor Constantine made Christianity legal, which set much change in motion for Rome as it became the official religion in 380 AD. The Roman Empire began to fall, but the Church's prestige and authority remained. As the church grew, it began to take control of many matters, including education, laws and business. Medieval Christendom was divided in the East and the West. Christians of eastern Europe were lead by Constantinople while in western Europe they were under the leadership of the Pope. These two branches gradually adopted different practices, which caused much friction and eventually lead to a schism in the church throughout the Middle Ages. The rise of Christendom also affected the arts. Where previously the Empire spread propaganda through sculptures of rulers, they were now replaced with images of Christ. Carvings of Jesus on the cross became increasingly popular.
Ottonian Art
King Henry was crowned as one of the first Holy Roman Emperors by the Pope in 962. Along with his son Otto I, they ruled over Germany and northern Italy and sparked a revival in the arts now know as Ottonian art. It resembled Carolingian style and had strong imperialist overtones. Though many of the works they commissioned were reminiscent of Carolingian style, it also brought new elements. Westworks were a common feature, which is a West facing monumental entrance. The exterior consists of multiple stories between two towers. The interior includes an entrance vestibule, a chapel, and a series of galleries overlooking the nave (central aisle). Ottonian art can be characterized by monumental, sharp attention to actuality, surface patterns of flowing lines and rich bright colours. It signaled a new period in European art.
Romanesque Architecture in Italy
Islamic armies had created much turmoil in the Middle East and occupying much of the land. In 962 Otto I was able to move back into Italy and began to bring back political and economic stability. In large this was due to the rise of city republics. The first order was to rebuild the churches. Though they were still seemingly conservative, there was a decorative revival with exterior elevations like those of the Baptistery in Florence. Arches and marble, typical of Roman architecture was typical in the new decorative schemes used.
There are also close connections to Byzantium style, especially with the marriage of Otto II to a Byzantine Princess in 972. This style was eclectic, with iconic Roman temple features. They combined the basilica and with circular religious. Their most distinctive feature is the domed roof. They favored souring spaces and and opulent decoration, using marble columns, stone pavements and gold ceilings, as can be seen in the S Marco in Venice.
Romanesque Art and Architecture in Northern Europe
During medieval Europe, feudalism was the dominant social system. It is a system where nobles held lands from the Crown in exchange for military service, peasants lived and worked on their lord's land in exchange for military protection. Many of these feudal lords were bishops as the Church held much of the land at that time. Thus, the church was the driving force behind the reform of architecture and art after a period of great depression and war in the tenth century. The church set out to build many monasteries and churches to establish their rule and religious reform. Though not a great shift in the architecture at that time, these expansions are prime examples of Romanesque architecture, A fusion of Roman, Carolingian and Ottonian, Byzantine, and local Germanic traditions. Churches characteristically incorporated semicircular arches for windows, doors, and arcades; barrel or groin vaults to support the roof of the nave; massive piers and walls, with few windows, aisles with galleries above them; a large tower over the crossing of nave and transept; and smaller towers at the church’s western end. For example St-Sermin Toulouse in France and the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela.
As the church controlled much of the land and grew very wealthy from this, they were the main patrons of architecture and art. Sculpture was an art form that wasn't practiced much after the fall of the Roman empire and was limited to the main exterior entrances of churches. They often depicted Christ as a larger scale figure, dwarfing the disciples surrounding him. The favored subject was the Last Judgement like the one above the west door of Autun Catherdral in France. Other than sculpture, stained glass, paintings and embroidery were further was of depicting biblical stories in churches. On the stained glass windows, human figures often appeared elongated varied in size in relation to their importance, and landscape backgrounds were absent or abstract. Details were more linear, rather than natural or realistic. Similar styles were used in illustrations created in manuscripts or hand-written bibles, often using vibrant primary colours. These pectoral images often appeared monumental and had a sense of climbing outside of the pane.
Innovations in Romanesque Architecture
1. The demand for unity
Especially in France and Germany there was a rise in creating unified buildings and architectural looks.
2. Vaulting
Ottonian Art
King Henry was crowned as one of the first Holy Roman Emperors by the Pope in 962. Along with his son Otto I, they ruled over Germany and northern Italy and sparked a revival in the arts now know as Ottonian art. It resembled Carolingian style and had strong imperialist overtones. Though many of the works they commissioned were reminiscent of Carolingian style, it also brought new elements. Westworks were a common feature, which is a West facing monumental entrance. The exterior consists of multiple stories between two towers. The interior includes an entrance vestibule, a chapel, and a series of galleries overlooking the nave (central aisle). Ottonian art can be characterized by monumental, sharp attention to actuality, surface patterns of flowing lines and rich bright colours. It signaled a new period in European art.
Romanesque Architecture in Italy
Islamic armies had created much turmoil in the Middle East and occupying much of the land. In 962 Otto I was able to move back into Italy and began to bring back political and economic stability. In large this was due to the rise of city republics. The first order was to rebuild the churches. Though they were still seemingly conservative, there was a decorative revival with exterior elevations like those of the Baptistery in Florence. Arches and marble, typical of Roman architecture was typical in the new decorative schemes used.
There are also close connections to Byzantium style, especially with the marriage of Otto II to a Byzantine Princess in 972. This style was eclectic, with iconic Roman temple features. They combined the basilica and with circular religious. Their most distinctive feature is the domed roof. They favored souring spaces and and opulent decoration, using marble columns, stone pavements and gold ceilings, as can be seen in the S Marco in Venice.
Romanesque Art and Architecture in Northern Europe
During medieval Europe, feudalism was the dominant social system. It is a system where nobles held lands from the Crown in exchange for military service, peasants lived and worked on their lord's land in exchange for military protection. Many of these feudal lords were bishops as the Church held much of the land at that time. Thus, the church was the driving force behind the reform of architecture and art after a period of great depression and war in the tenth century. The church set out to build many monasteries and churches to establish their rule and religious reform. Though not a great shift in the architecture at that time, these expansions are prime examples of Romanesque architecture, A fusion of Roman, Carolingian and Ottonian, Byzantine, and local Germanic traditions. Churches characteristically incorporated semicircular arches for windows, doors, and arcades; barrel or groin vaults to support the roof of the nave; massive piers and walls, with few windows, aisles with galleries above them; a large tower over the crossing of nave and transept; and smaller towers at the church’s western end. For example St-Sermin Toulouse in France and the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela.
As the church controlled much of the land and grew very wealthy from this, they were the main patrons of architecture and art. Sculpture was an art form that wasn't practiced much after the fall of the Roman empire and was limited to the main exterior entrances of churches. They often depicted Christ as a larger scale figure, dwarfing the disciples surrounding him. The favored subject was the Last Judgement like the one above the west door of Autun Catherdral in France. Other than sculpture, stained glass, paintings and embroidery were further was of depicting biblical stories in churches. On the stained glass windows, human figures often appeared elongated varied in size in relation to their importance, and landscape backgrounds were absent or abstract. Details were more linear, rather than natural or realistic. Similar styles were used in illustrations created in manuscripts or hand-written bibles, often using vibrant primary colours. These pectoral images often appeared monumental and had a sense of climbing outside of the pane.
Innovations in Romanesque Architecture
1. The demand for unity
Especially in France and Germany there was a rise in creating unified buildings and architectural looks.
2. Vaulting
- Tunnel vaults - the simplest form of a vault, also called a barrel vault. It is a structure composed of continuous semicircular or pointed sections. They required continuous walls of great thickness to resist thrust, making the structures heavy and dark.
- Groin vaults - when two semicircular barrel vaults of the same diameter cross one another their, intersection is known as a groin. By spreading their weight there was no longer a need for thick walls and so statement windows could be added, which also allowed for more light.
- Rib vaults - a masonry vault with a relatively thin web and set within a framework of ribs. Not only did they make building easier as they could be pre-made, they also created a visually stimulating pattern, making the space feel lighter.
3. Naves - the widest center part of a church, between the main columns where people sit, inspired by the Roman Bascilica.
Gothic art and architecture
The abbey church if St Denis in Paris is the foundation example of all Gothic churches built since. Pointed arches and ribbed vaults are the most prominent features of Gothic interiors. The pointed arch relieved some of the thrust, and therefore, the stress on other structural elements. Gothic churches were a symbol of religious meaning to the church. They became ever taller and slender, as beacons pointing towards heaven. This slender design also allowed for taller slender windows and the opportunity to create decorative features. In later buildings the decorative display was almost dizzying. With windows, ribs and columns show casing decorative carvings, shapes and patterns.
Stained glass served another symbolic purpose. Not only letting in illuminating light, but depicting biblical stories in vivid colours. They created a mystical atmosphere far removed from the word outside. Tracery was another Gothic invention, which was an architectural decoration in which a frame is filled with interlacing bands of material, mostly used on windows, but can also be seen on railings and arches.
The 'flying buttress' was another Gothic invention, needed to help support the roof, as more windows were used to favor light instead of walls and they could not support the full weight. The was a set of arches 'flying out' from the sides of the building to help provide additional support, while still allowing in light. they helped to integrate the interior and exterior. Notre Dame, Reims Cathedral and Cartres Cathedral are prime examples of Gothic Architecture.
Following are some images of my visit to Notre Dame in 2013.
Gothic art and architecture
The abbey church if St Denis in Paris is the foundation example of all Gothic churches built since. Pointed arches and ribbed vaults are the most prominent features of Gothic interiors. The pointed arch relieved some of the thrust, and therefore, the stress on other structural elements. Gothic churches were a symbol of religious meaning to the church. They became ever taller and slender, as beacons pointing towards heaven. This slender design also allowed for taller slender windows and the opportunity to create decorative features. In later buildings the decorative display was almost dizzying. With windows, ribs and columns show casing decorative carvings, shapes and patterns.
Stained glass served another symbolic purpose. Not only letting in illuminating light, but depicting biblical stories in vivid colours. They created a mystical atmosphere far removed from the word outside. Tracery was another Gothic invention, which was an architectural decoration in which a frame is filled with interlacing bands of material, mostly used on windows, but can also be seen on railings and arches.
The 'flying buttress' was another Gothic invention, needed to help support the roof, as more windows were used to favor light instead of walls and they could not support the full weight. The was a set of arches 'flying out' from the sides of the building to help provide additional support, while still allowing in light. they helped to integrate the interior and exterior. Notre Dame, Reims Cathedral and Cartres Cathedral are prime examples of Gothic Architecture.
Following are some images of my visit to Notre Dame in 2013.
Exercise: Research medieval architecture
Take a look around your local area and find buildings that show some of the characteristics of Romanesque or Gothic architecture.
Please note:
There are only a few Gothic style buildings in Hong Kong which are all churches. As I will be discussing a Gothic church later as part of my assignment, I have chosen to discuss a building here that is more influenced by Roman architecture. I feel that this is relevant and supplementary to the amount of research already done on Roman Architecture.
Old Supreme Court Building, Hong Kong
Please note:
There are only a few Gothic style buildings in Hong Kong which are all churches. As I will be discussing a Gothic church later as part of my assignment, I have chosen to discuss a building here that is more influenced by Roman architecture. I feel that this is relevant and supplementary to the amount of research already done on Roman Architecture.
Old Supreme Court Building, Hong Kong
The Court of Final Appeal, now known as the Old Supreme Court was opened in 1912, though the planning process began in 1894, when two British architects, Aston Webb and E. Ingress Bell where appointed to draw up the plans. Chan A. Tong undertook the construction which took nearly 12 years. It was used as the Supreme Court and offices of the Attorney General and Crown Solicitor until 1941. During the Japanese Occupation from 1942-1945 it was the headquarters of the military police. Since then it has been preserved as a historical monument and continues to serve as the Court of Final Appeals.
It is a two story building and the architecture would be classified as Neoclassical. This is a contemporary term applied to architecture that continues to use classical and traditional practices. Meaning architecture derived from Greek and Roman Architecture. adorned by arches and ionic columns. Neoclassical style was particularly popular in Britain during the late 1800s and early 20th century, so it makes sense that the two British architects employed to plan this building would design it in this style. Geometry, symmetry and clean lines are some of the most significant features of classical architecture, which is evident in this building too.
Image 2 (below left) shows the use of arches which were a popular feature in Roman architecture, not only because of its structural strength, but also the beautiful geometric symmetry it creates aesthetically. In Image 3 (below right) we see ionic columns, which is an elegant slender column originating from Greece. I this image we also notice the balcony which is edged by a decorative balustrade. These are repeated at windows and along the edge of the roof. Image 1 (above) showcases the domed roof that is featured in the center of the building. Domes were a prominent feature of Roman architecture. During the Hellenistic-Roman times a dome over a square base represented perfection, eternity, and the heavens.
It is a two story building and the architecture would be classified as Neoclassical. This is a contemporary term applied to architecture that continues to use classical and traditional practices. Meaning architecture derived from Greek and Roman Architecture. adorned by arches and ionic columns. Neoclassical style was particularly popular in Britain during the late 1800s and early 20th century, so it makes sense that the two British architects employed to plan this building would design it in this style. Geometry, symmetry and clean lines are some of the most significant features of classical architecture, which is evident in this building too.
Image 2 (below left) shows the use of arches which were a popular feature in Roman architecture, not only because of its structural strength, but also the beautiful geometric symmetry it creates aesthetically. In Image 3 (below right) we see ionic columns, which is an elegant slender column originating from Greece. I this image we also notice the balcony which is edged by a decorative balustrade. These are repeated at windows and along the edge of the roof. Image 1 (above) showcases the domed roof that is featured in the center of the building. Domes were a prominent feature of Roman architecture. During the Hellenistic-Roman times a dome over a square base represented perfection, eternity, and the heavens.
The Greeks and Romans also adorned their building with carvings and statues. Though this building has been kept quite clean and simple through the symmetrical use of lines, there are pieces that not only decorate the building but also add to its symbolism. Image 4 shows the British royal coat of arms within the pediment, reminding us of the British rule in Hong Kong from 1841 to 1997. Centered on the pediment is the statue of the Greek Goddess of Justice, Themis, who is blindfolded and holds a scale. Truth is weighed in her scales and her sword has power to punish, therefore she is a symbol of the justice meted out in the law courts below.
Though this building is a better representation of Classical architecture, it has architectural features which were also later used in the development of Romanesque architecture. Semi-circular arches are the most prominent feature of Romanesque architecture. Thick walls and symmetrical planning is another Romanesque feature, which we see in this building. But the most defining feature of Romanesque are the pointed arches and decorative arcading, and this is where the Court changes course. This design is sleek and grandiose. Lines are kept clean, simple and precise, all symbolic of what the law should be.
Useful sources:
Old Supreme Court Blog Post
Historical Photographs of Old Supreme court
Brief History - Old supreme court
Additional Images
Old Supreme Court Blog Post
Historical Photographs of Old Supreme court
Brief History - Old supreme court
Additional Images
An Architectural Tour of Hong Kong
![Picture](/uploads/4/9/1/1/49115679/published/img-20151022-120411.jpg?1502353467)
There is a reason why the Hong Kong skyline is so often featured in blockbuster films and documentaries. It is an impressive forest of scrapers, shining and reflecting the hustle and bustle of its busy streets and people. Among the giants there are still some classical and great historical gems. I hardly made it to all of them, but following are a couple of buildings that are a wonderful reminder of the diverse history of Hong Kong.
The Fringe Club
It was a cold storage building constructed in 1892 in an early colonial architectural style. It is now an advocate and space for the arts, including visual arts exhibitions, stage performances and live music.
The HSBC Building
Officially opened in1986 , this building was an engineering masterpiece. For that time it was incredibly innovative and unlike any building seen before. The formation of the lines and shapes on this building almost makes it look like a transformer, which is pretty cool!
St. John's Cathedral
This church opened for service in 1849 and is the second oldest building in Hong Kong. The architectural style is adapted from plain and adapted from 13th Century Early English and it is decorated in a Gothic style.
Former French Mission Building
It is one of the few remaining pre-war buildings of the Society of Foreign Missions. Built in 1917 with granite and red brick and can be described as Neo-classical.
Visit a Gothic church
Study the building itself, its structure, engineering and decoration. Notice how far the building is appropriate for its purpose; its size, its ground plan, its use as a place of worship, are all aspects worth reflection. Consider the conflicting aims of visual delight and devotion. Consider the place of commemoration in churches, whether in the form of tombs or in other memorials. Write an illustrated report of your visit in your learning log.
Gothic Architecture emerged in the mid 1100's and extended to the sixteenth century. It was particularly popular when building cathedrals and often castles. It is important to first understand some of the most defining features of Gothic architecture.
Gothic Architecture emerged in the mid 1100's and extended to the sixteenth century. It was particularly popular when building cathedrals and often castles. It is important to first understand some of the most defining features of Gothic architecture.
Gothic Architecture Characteristics:
There are three main features that define Gothic Architecture.
The Pointed Arch
The pointed arch replaced the semicircular or Roman arch. It's designed allowed for weight to be distributed downward to the supporting pillars, meaning that big heavy walls to support the roof and allowing for the use of larger windows.
The Flying Buttress
This was another Gothic invention, needed to help support the roof, as more windows were used to favor light instead of walls and they could not support the full weight.
The was a set of arches 'flying out' from the sides of the building to help provide additional support, while still allowing in light. they helped to integrate the interior and exterior. Westminster Abbey (right) shows a good example of the flying buttress spreading out from the main pointed arch in the center. |
The Ribbed Vault
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Additional characteristics due to the use of the three architectural characteristics above include:
- Height
The use of the flying buttress and pointed arches meant that architects could spread the weight and create taller walls and loftier towers.
- Light and airy spaces
The use of rib vaults and higher ceilings allowed for the use of larger windows, which soon became an artistic feature as well. Stain glassed windows were used not only to create light airy spaces, but also to showcase biblical stories.
- Decorative and ornate style
The use of higher walls and bigger windows created a platform for decoration. Creating carvings around arches and windows also became a prominent feature of many Gothic churches. Gargoyles also became a popular statue placed on the rooftops of churches. Though decorative and grotesque, their purpose was actually practical, helping to drain rain water.
- Height
The use of the flying buttress and pointed arches meant that architects could spread the weight and create taller walls and loftier towers.
- Light and airy spaces
The use of rib vaults and higher ceilings allowed for the use of larger windows, which soon became an artistic feature as well. Stain glassed windows were used not only to create light airy spaces, but also to showcase biblical stories.
- Decorative and ornate style
The use of higher walls and bigger windows created a platform for decoration. Creating carvings around arches and windows also became a prominent feature of many Gothic churches. Gargoyles also became a popular statue placed on the rooftops of churches. Though decorative and grotesque, their purpose was actually practical, helping to drain rain water.
Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception
My report was too large to upload, so it can be accessed bye clicking here.
Here are some additional images from my visit:
Here are some additional images from my visit:
Asia Contemporary Art Show
This show happens in Hong Kong twice a year. It mostly feature artists and galleries from around Asia, although there also Western galleries and artist, especially from Australia. Many of the artists featured are Taiwanese and Japanese, so they do a lot of print work and paintings often have an animated feel. This year my favorite artist was Will Yu who created vibrant portraits and particularity favors working in teal, which interestingly seems to compliment well with skin tones.
Most of these works were quite a contradiction to the classical art we have been researching in this Part 2. Although, one can see how the notions of the golden ratio, perspective and chiaroscuro are still greatly used and influencing artists.
Most of these works were quite a contradiction to the classical art we have been researching in this Part 2. Although, one can see how the notions of the golden ratio, perspective and chiaroscuro are still greatly used and influencing artists.