Introduction
In this part we will explore the 18th and 19th century philosophical movements known as the Enlightenment and Romanticism, which were characterized by themes of reason and passion, respectively.
From the Handbook
From Neo-Classicism to Impressionism
Enlightenment culture was a European movement largely confined to the noble and professional classes. It was associated with a condemnation of despotism, criticism and distrust of the established church and a greater respect of the classical past.
Enlightenment culture was a European movement largely confined to the noble and professional classes. It was associated with a condemnation of despotism, criticism and distrust of the established church and a greater respect of the classical past.
This painting is a great example for the new demands of liberty and political representation. It is a meeting of the deputies of the Third Estate to discuss reforms with the French prime minister.The Oath called for a written constitution.
It has reference to Classical art, showing the deputies swearing allegiance with poses used during the Roman Republic. This similarity provides then with an heroic and virtuous status. |
However, prior to the Revolution in France, the 18th century was dominated by the decorative rococo style, portraying hedonistic delights. There was also a greater orient influence giving rise to the use of porcelain, lacquered furniture and wallpaper. In trade, the consumption of sugar, cotton, tea and coffee enhanced the European economy. The decorative rococo style also flourished internationally, and can been seen in the churches of Johann Michael Fisher and Dominikus Zimmermann. It was also visible in the palaces off Sans-Souci and Charlottenburg.
By the middle of the century this preoccupation with taste, fashion and sensibility was beginning to give way to the emphasis on reason that characterised the Enlightenment. There was a new seriousness that appeared in the writings of the French philosophes responsible for the Encyclopédie. One of the most prolific critics was Denis Diderot who favored the sober and moralising works of Chardin and Greuze. There was a growing interest in the increasingly well-educated public and in the power of images to convey ideas. Contemporary incidents were elevated to history status, using the ideals of classicism and democratic ideals.
Napoleon had a great impact on the establishment of Neo-classism in France as he harnessed the spirit of classicism and employed art and architecture to help bolster his right to rule. His ambition for Paris was to emulate ancient Rome; the Arc de Triomphe, the triumphal ways, the Egyptian obelisk on the Place de la Concorde and the Vendôme column all reflect this ambition.
Romanticism to Realism
The impulse to modernity was expressed in the nineteenth century in three main ways: through Romanticism, the realism of Courbet and the work of the Impressionists. With this we see a departure from the optimism and rationalism of the Enlightenment movement as Romantic artist were often defined by subjectivity, pessimism and self-alienation. Around Europe these was a new demand for political freedom, which were portrayed in works like Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze’s Westward the Course of Empire Takes its Way (Westward Ho!), and Thomas Cole’s The Course of Empire.
Napoleon had a great impact on the establishment of Neo-classism in France as he harnessed the spirit of classicism and employed art and architecture to help bolster his right to rule. His ambition for Paris was to emulate ancient Rome; the Arc de Triomphe, the triumphal ways, the Egyptian obelisk on the Place de la Concorde and the Vendôme column all reflect this ambition.
Romanticism to Realism
The impulse to modernity was expressed in the nineteenth century in three main ways: through Romanticism, the realism of Courbet and the work of the Impressionists. With this we see a departure from the optimism and rationalism of the Enlightenment movement as Romantic artist were often defined by subjectivity, pessimism and self-alienation. Around Europe these was a new demand for political freedom, which were portrayed in works like Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze’s Westward the Course of Empire Takes its Way (Westward Ho!), and Thomas Cole’s The Course of Empire.
In France, Courbet also challenged the conventions of history painting by painting contemporary bourgeois life. His techniques were also un-academic, using thick, bold and broad paint applications often applied with a knife. He made use of unflattering realism to make oriental figures appear significant and in an heroic scale, traditionally reserved for religious paintings. |
Meanwhile the Impressionists’ approach was to observe and record what they saw. They took everyday themes as their subject matter and challenged academic standards through their apparent lack of finish and their use of colours in ways which reflected the studies of theorists such as Chevreul. However, many aspects of Impressionism, including their use of light and colour, had their precedents in Rubens or Delacroix. Nor did the advent of Impressionism mean an end to the representation of contemporary historical events. Like Manet’s The Execution of the Emperor Maximilian. |
The impact of the industrial revolution
The industrial revolution was another great impact on the 19th century. Its influence on art can be seen in pieces like Loutherbourg’s Coalbrookdale by Night and Adolph Menzel’s Rolling Mills of 1875. The development of photography, like mass-produced ceramics, was typical of the mechanical processes that accompanied rapid urbanisation and the factory system. Writers such as Foucault have argued that its early use in prisons and workhouses was emblematic of the growing power of the state and of its tendency to classify those that did not conform to the demands of factory labour. One of its consequences was to encourage artists to abandon the pursuit of illusion in favour of works in which sketchiness and spontaneity predominated.
The industrial revolution was another great impact on the 19th century. Its influence on art can be seen in pieces like Loutherbourg’s Coalbrookdale by Night and Adolph Menzel’s Rolling Mills of 1875. The development of photography, like mass-produced ceramics, was typical of the mechanical processes that accompanied rapid urbanisation and the factory system. Writers such as Foucault have argued that its early use in prisons and workhouses was emblematic of the growing power of the state and of its tendency to classify those that did not conform to the demands of factory labour. One of its consequences was to encourage artists to abandon the pursuit of illusion in favour of works in which sketchiness and spontaneity predominated.
The manufacturing processes associated with the industrial revolution also led to the creation of prefabricated buildings, like the Crystal Palace. The social problems caused by the industrial revolution further exacerbated the growth of nationalist, socialist and anarchist movements and the demand for political reform. |
Imperialist adventures
Another aspect of the response by governments to the tensions of the century was the involvement of Britain, France, Russia, Germany and Italy in imperial adventures in Africa and Asia. From as early as Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt, Africa had fascinated artists, as can be seen in works such as Antoine-Jean Gros’s Napoleon in the Plague House at Jaffa (1804) and Marie Guillemine Benoist’s Portrait of a Black Woman (1800).
Another aspect of the response by governments to the tensions of the century was the involvement of Britain, France, Russia, Germany and Italy in imperial adventures in Africa and Asia. From as early as Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt, Africa had fascinated artists, as can be seen in works such as Antoine-Jean Gros’s Napoleon in the Plague House at Jaffa (1804) and Marie Guillemine Benoist’s Portrait of a Black Woman (1800).
Impressionism to Post-Impressionism
After Germany defeated France in 1871 there was an economic depression that affected Europe. Economic tensions fuelled fin-de-siècle anxieties and unease about the disorientating effects of urban life which can be seen in such works like Manet’s A Bar at the Folies-Bergère, 1881.
After Germany defeated France in 1871 there was an economic depression that affected Europe. Economic tensions fuelled fin-de-siècle anxieties and unease about the disorientating effects of urban life which can be seen in such works like Manet’s A Bar at the Folies-Bergère, 1881.
It was also during this time that female nudes were painted in a less allegorical manner and more provocatively, by artists like Degas, Gauguin, Toulouse-Lautrec, Klimt, Schiele and Sickert. The most controversial female nude of all was Manet’s Olympia.
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Impressionism itself can be seen either as the logical conclusion of the scientific positivism of the earlier century or as a retreat into individualism and self-expression. On the one hand, it’s symptomatic of the artists’ interest in the colour theories of Chevreul, James Clerk Maxwell and Charles Blanc and the optical and psychological researches of thinkers such as Charles Henry. On the other, it can be interpreted as the pursuit of what Baudelaire called ‘the transitory, the fleeting, the contingent’.
By 1880 many artists seemed to have grown tired of what the Symbolist poet Gustave Kahn called ‘the everyday, near-at-hand and the contemporaneous’. A desire to express the unsettling nature of the modern world can be seen in works such as Munch’s The Scream or Gauguin’s Spirit of the Dead Watching and van Gogh’s The Night Café. At the same time, other Post-Impressionist artists such as Seurat were seeking to replace the transitory and intuitive nature of Impressionism with a more programmatic approach. Their works emphasised the unity of the picture surface and privileged the decorative rather than the descriptive qualities of their work.
There were many power struggles during the 18th century, most notably the ascendancy of France in Europe and the marshalling of the Prussian people into a future German state. The monarch of France, Louis XIV, played a great role in the Spanish Succession, Austrian Succession, the Seven Years War and the French Revolution. The true beneficiary of these conflicts was Great Britain, as England and Scotland formed the new united kingdom. The British then went on to take Quebec in North America and Canada. The British conflict between the French in America is what lead to a rebellion and ultimately lead to the colonies of the United states.
Christianity continued to have a hold in the 18th century with an increased concentration on devotion and piety. Secular pieces also continued to gain ground, as philosophers and thinkers question Christianity. The beginning of industrialization opened up new possibilities and the need for better conditions for workers. Much of 18th century art reflected the two main characteristics that defined the 18th century, continued absolutism and Enlightenment (Reason). There was also a great awareness of the past which lead to a renewed sense of Christian spirituality. Excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum also revived a taste for antiquity in the arts. (Adams, 2012)
Absolutism
The political practice of absolute power, usually taking the form of a monarchy or dictatorship. One ruler had supreme authority and was not restricted by written laws, legislature, or customs. Much of their rule was justified by the “the divine right of kings” theory, which meant that their authority was divinely ordained by God. Though many argued that this type of centralized decision making was best, it often lead to unchecked and tyrannical rule. For example Loius XIV, Frederic the Great and Catherine the Great.
Enlightenment
This movement stemmed from those who were skeptical and questioned Christian teaching and ideology and their notions of absolute rule. These thinkers and philosophers based their ideals on observation, logic, science and the power of the human mind. "The goals of rational humanity were considered to be knowledge, freedom, and happiness" (Britannica, 2017). Some of the key figures include, John Locke, Isaac Newton and Immanuel Kant.
Immanuel Kant
A German philosopher concerned with knowledge, ethics and aesthetics. He was a great contributor to the Enlightenment movement through his philosophies about idealism, rationalism and empiricism. He had a great influence on all philosophy since, as many studied and wrote about his works, known as Katianism.
The Age of Rococo
This highly decorative style formed in extension to Baroque. It arose form the French court and reflect the continued separation of the courts and the people. It is a highly criticized movement in the arts and often viewed as a frivolous attempt for the upper class to fulfill their whims, however it can also be viewed as a form of escape, as artists reacted against academic rules and restrictions. It can be described as spontaneous, playful and decorative, following two major themes, 'nature and the pursuit of happiness' (Copplestone, 1983:258). "Its genius lay in nuances, subtle juxtapositions of forms, gentle gradations and mingling of colours, the elusive dancing rhythms of only slightly differentiated motifs" (WHA 609)
Christianity continued to have a hold in the 18th century with an increased concentration on devotion and piety. Secular pieces also continued to gain ground, as philosophers and thinkers question Christianity. The beginning of industrialization opened up new possibilities and the need for better conditions for workers. Much of 18th century art reflected the two main characteristics that defined the 18th century, continued absolutism and Enlightenment (Reason). There was also a great awareness of the past which lead to a renewed sense of Christian spirituality. Excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum also revived a taste for antiquity in the arts. (Adams, 2012)
Absolutism
The political practice of absolute power, usually taking the form of a monarchy or dictatorship. One ruler had supreme authority and was not restricted by written laws, legislature, or customs. Much of their rule was justified by the “the divine right of kings” theory, which meant that their authority was divinely ordained by God. Though many argued that this type of centralized decision making was best, it often lead to unchecked and tyrannical rule. For example Loius XIV, Frederic the Great and Catherine the Great.
Enlightenment
This movement stemmed from those who were skeptical and questioned Christian teaching and ideology and their notions of absolute rule. These thinkers and philosophers based their ideals on observation, logic, science and the power of the human mind. "The goals of rational humanity were considered to be knowledge, freedom, and happiness" (Britannica, 2017). Some of the key figures include, John Locke, Isaac Newton and Immanuel Kant.
Immanuel Kant
A German philosopher concerned with knowledge, ethics and aesthetics. He was a great contributor to the Enlightenment movement through his philosophies about idealism, rationalism and empiricism. He had a great influence on all philosophy since, as many studied and wrote about his works, known as Katianism.
The Age of Rococo
This highly decorative style formed in extension to Baroque. It arose form the French court and reflect the continued separation of the courts and the people. It is a highly criticized movement in the arts and often viewed as a frivolous attempt for the upper class to fulfill their whims, however it can also be viewed as a form of escape, as artists reacted against academic rules and restrictions. It can be described as spontaneous, playful and decorative, following two major themes, 'nature and the pursuit of happiness' (Copplestone, 1983:258). "Its genius lay in nuances, subtle juxtapositions of forms, gentle gradations and mingling of colours, the elusive dancing rhythms of only slightly differentiated motifs" (WHA 609)
It started as an architectural movement where the wealthy French aristocrats started decorating their homes in a new Rococo style that was associated with King Louis XV. They focused particularly on the salon (living room) and transforming that into a central space for aristocracy, a place to entertain guests and engage in intellectual conversation. "Rococo salons are characterized by their elaborate detail, intricate patterns, serpentine design work, asymmetry, and a predisposition to lighter, pastel, and gold-based color palettes" (Lumen, 2017). These themes also influenced sculpture and painting, using serpentine lines, and highly ornamental details to convey themes of love, nature and playfulness.
The Princess' Salon is a prime example in the development of the rococo style. The oval shape had become popular as it was easier is it gave a sense of looseness. The tall arched windows allowed for great spills of light, reflecting of the painted woodwork and looking glasses. We see how the serpentine embellishments and rich textures combine to create an effect so grand, the viewer feels dwarfed by it. This room embodies the new genre pittoresque which means pictorial motifs. Popular motifs were shells, flowers, tendrils, leaves and scrolls. It represents lightness, elegance, gaiety and novelty (WHA). It is this curvilinear form and sensuality and whimsicality that inspired many painters of that time.
French Rococo Artists
The Princess' Salon is a prime example in the development of the rococo style. The oval shape had become popular as it was easier is it gave a sense of looseness. The tall arched windows allowed for great spills of light, reflecting of the painted woodwork and looking glasses. We see how the serpentine embellishments and rich textures combine to create an effect so grand, the viewer feels dwarfed by it. This room embodies the new genre pittoresque which means pictorial motifs. Popular motifs were shells, flowers, tendrils, leaves and scrolls. It represents lightness, elegance, gaiety and novelty (WHA). It is this curvilinear form and sensuality and whimsicality that inspired many painters of that time.
French Rococo Artists
Antoine Watteau
A French painter who typified the rococo style. He worked with a lyrical grace that created a unique fusion between man and nature. He is known for his soft application and creation of dreamy atmospheres. It is well demonstrated in Fêtes Venitiennes, where we see how the soft lines and poses of the people, meld with the rhythm of the trees. Even the stone work appears to be in harmony with its surroundings. The idea of playfulness and fun is shown with a sense of fantasy. The woman dancing in the center is highlighted and centered drawing in the attention of her audience. The satin on her skirt creates a focal point for the viewer and it is though her dance emanates light out to the crowd. He was greatly influenced by the theatre, in particular Commedia del 'Arte and the ballet. This is evident in the poetic and playful nature of his depictions. |
Jean Francois de Troy
Particularly famed for creating scenes that represent the French aristocrats and their lifestyles, providing a more realistic take on their fashions, pastimes and manners. In A Reading from Moliere the figures are stylishly and sensually posed in a large an opulent room. The rich textures of the decor and fabrics are playfully and brightly rendered through his combination of light and colour. It highlights the popularity of 'Enlightended' salons where the wealthy not only share their intellect, but also their appreciation of life and fashion. |
Francois Boucher
His work is a great representation of French taste during the rococo period. He worked with a voluptuous sensibility, trying to combine that which is carnal to that which is sensual, creating a sense of mischief. This can clearly be seen in Hercules and Omphale. The curved an winding figures all seem drawn to each other. There is an abundance of flesh and cloth to capture and reflect light. This gives the composition movement, making the scene energetic. The viewer can sense the passion and energy from the canvas. The fluency in his handling of the brush along with his light palette colours, further ad to the air of sensuality and romance created by this piece. |
Jean-Honore Fragonard
Highly influenced by the rococo masters Chardin and Boucher, Fragonard became a prolific rococo artist in his own right. He represented the playful decorative style well while adding his own erotic and frivolous flare, which he was often criticized for. His scenes and choice of soft colour palette draw up a sence of nostalgia. They are mostly centered around domestic bliss and women in particular were depicted as mystical with a sense of flirtation, as is seen in The Progress of Love: Love Letters. His play on light is particularly evident, in this scene he has created a mystical glow around the couple which crates an air of romance. |
Denis Diderot
During the age of Enlightenment, thinkers and philosophers encapsulated everything they deemed worth knowing in the great French Encyclopedia (1751). Diderot was a novelist, essayist and editor who contributed to the Encyclopedia. "The Encyclopédie was to bring out the essential principles and applications of every art and science. The underlying philosophy was rationalism and a qualified faith in the progress of the human mind" (Britannica: Niklaus, 2002)) He didn't comment much on the theory of art, but rather focusing on how and artwork made him feel. His judgements were based on his own high value of morals which often made his remarks on the works of others quite stern.
During the age of Enlightenment, thinkers and philosophers encapsulated everything they deemed worth knowing in the great French Encyclopedia (1751). Diderot was a novelist, essayist and editor who contributed to the Encyclopedia. "The Encyclopédie was to bring out the essential principles and applications of every art and science. The underlying philosophy was rationalism and a qualified faith in the progress of the human mind" (Britannica: Niklaus, 2002)) He didn't comment much on the theory of art, but rather focusing on how and artwork made him feel. His judgements were based on his own high value of morals which often made his remarks on the works of others quite stern.
Rococo architecture in Germany
German rococo was inspired by Italian Baroque and the two are quite hard to distinguish. The architecture has a spacial complexity with elaborate surface textures and intricacy, as can be seen in the Zwinger, a pavilion in Dresden. It is an interesting amalgamation of architecture and sculpture working together tho represent the boldness and pageantry of the festivals that may be held there. |
Interiors were often more of a focus, particularly in churches. Swirling and decorative motifs, combined with spilling light and colour, where meant to give visitors the feeling of entering heaven. In Wieskirche we see this opulent and fantastical style at work. Warm glowing colours combined with serpentine sculptures and fashionable decorative motifs.
German rococo interiors were highly influenced by the French fashions and designs, perpetuated by Bavarian architect Francois Cuvillies. Sculpture and painting went hand in hand with the decorative rococo architectural style. Ceiling paintings in particular elevated this dramatic style, bringing a further intellectual and visual complexity to the interior spaces. |
Rococo art in Italy
In Rome and Venice the arts were dominated by the Calssissm of High Renaissance. Venetians were once again drawn to the rich colourful works of Titian and the dramtic lighting effects of Tintoretto. Francesco Guardi was one artist who carried forth these traditions in his portraits as well as his dramatic works of the Venetian canals. His works evoked a feeling of fantasy with a palpable energy coming from the canvas. |
The Rococo influence in Great Britain
In Great Britain there was a more rational and moral approach to artistic matters. The scottish architect Colen Campbell advocated for the return to Classical principles and embarked on bringing good manners and prosperity back through his Neo-Palladian home designs. These homes declared the respect and propriety of the owner through its use of stonework, columns and pediment.
William Hogarth
Hogarth depicts one of these Neo-Palladian homes in Mariage a la Mode II, where we see the use of Classical ornaments and columns. He captured subjects with a sense of satirical caricature and his style was highly influenced by French rococo. In this painting he points out the flaws in the social customs of the time, in particular the marriage of convenience and social convention. He wanted to bring a sense of realism into his paintings while creating a strong moral point of view, while still embracing the aesthetic qualities of his craft. He was concerned with highlighting to his countrymen the best and worst parts of English culture. |
Thomas Gainsborough
This English portrait and landscape artist became a dominant figure in portrait painting duirng the 18th century. He was taught by Hubert Gravelot, a French book-illustrator, and the influence of rococo style is evident in his work. He worked with lively strokes, using a soft palette. There is a great sense of poetry to his work, especially in his handling of light and texture. Figures were presented fashionably and with a romantic air about them, as can be seen in his depiction of Robert Andrews and in his wife Mary in Mr and Mrs Andrews. |
Classicism
It is the production of art inspired by antiquity, or art that was produced during the Greek and Roman antiquity. This means work was produced with the classical characteristics of harmony, clarity, restraint, universality, and idealism. The Classical past was greatly emphasized in Britain during the 18th century as the once again accepted the Classical style as supreme, as it represents a well-bred and well-read society.
Architects were once again inspired by Roman imperial magnificence. Like the design of Syon House by Robert Adam, featuring classical columns with decorative scrolls, the use of sculpture and marble and classical arched doorways. Although the golden and elaborate trimmings still keep an air of baroque and rococo style. |
This also translated into landscape, with parks and formal gardens become a great contribution to visual art in the 18th century.
The design of these gardens resemble a sense of nostalgia but also the ability of man to dominate and control nature without being rigidly formal, like The Park at Stourhead.
In the visual arts Classicism was also making it's impression, with artists once again looking back to the Roman depictions of form for their inspiration. The portraits of Sir Joshua Reynolds are a perfect example of bringing back the grand style to portraiture. He made use of antique poses and attitudes. He ascribed to the use of a 'general idea', which shows restraint in his approach.
Other artists continued to use the idea of classical poses and story telling on canvas. We see this in the work of American painter Benjamin West and his depiction of Death of General Wolfe. He combined the use of costume, classical poses and emotive colours to make the figures symbols of the affects of war. |
Neoclassicism
The terms Classicism and Neoclassicism are often used interchangeably. Though the later refers to works that were inspired by antiquity. During the mid 18th century there was a divide among artists; one the one hand those who wanted to revolt against restraint and pursue fantasy, beauty and the sublime, and those who sought antiquity, harmony and rational thinking. Artists who did not agree with the frivolous sensuality of Rococo art insisted on a return to order, promoting a more cerebral art. Pieces need to be moral, serious and rational, fitting better with the age of Enlightenment. "Neoclassicsm is characterized by clarity of form, sober colors, shallow space, strong horizontal and verticals that render that subject matter timeless" (Gersh-Nesic, 2014). The drivers of Enlightenment in England and France were proclaimed thinkers about human affairs, tradition and the common good like Hume, Voltaire and Roussou.
In France and America Neoclassical style represented a desire for democracy and the abollishment of monarchy. Thomas Jefferson was the driver of the American version of Neoclassical style referred to as Federal style. He himself was an architect and a collector of Classical Roman sculpture and we see these influences in his buildings, Monticello and Rotanda (Adams, 2012). Neoclassical architecture is defined by its sense of naturalism and its underlying assertion of order and authority. In France, early Classicism was linked to Louis XIV as an attempt to boost his prestige. It later became synonymous with Napoleon who wished to reflect his own imperial ambitions. He took the triumphal arch to new heights which influenced the Western arts.
In France and America Neoclassical style represented a desire for democracy and the abollishment of monarchy. Thomas Jefferson was the driver of the American version of Neoclassical style referred to as Federal style. He himself was an architect and a collector of Classical Roman sculpture and we see these influences in his buildings, Monticello and Rotanda (Adams, 2012). Neoclassical architecture is defined by its sense of naturalism and its underlying assertion of order and authority. In France, early Classicism was linked to Louis XIV as an attempt to boost his prestige. It later became synonymous with Napoleon who wished to reflect his own imperial ambitions. He took the triumphal arch to new heights which influenced the Western arts.
Neoclassicism in sculpture
In sculpture artists adhered to the classic depiction of form. Subjects are portrayed with dignity and sensibility. Looking at the sculpture of George Washington by Jean-Antoine Houdon, we can see the Classical influence at work. He is presented with a strong counterpasto stance, a symbol of pwer and leadership. His expression is stern, but also tender, as he looks out. Though there are many Classical Characteristics, Washington is presented in his modern clothes, which he insisted upon. Its naturalism is a celebration of the man and his character. |
Neoclassicism in art
A great exponent in the new rigors of art was Jacques-Louis David, who "reestablished the formal standards of Raphael and of Augustan Rome and turned Classicism into a tool that served the new exhortative and eulogizing subjects painters were called on to render" (Britannica, 2009). A student of the French Academy in Rome and the Academy in Paris, he truly represented the new rigorous manners imposed on art as "he combined a nobly sentimental approach to antiquity with a pictorial technique reminiscent of Poussin" (Mcullen, 2008). He worked with a sober colour palette creating images of stern aristocracy in morals. His painting of The Dead Marat is a deeply moving image representing the finality of death, though it has a political and moral undertone, there is a sensuality in this piece unlike any of his others. |
Exercise: Research, draw or paint a classical portrait
Sir Joshua Reynolds
Sir Joshua Reynolds was an English artist who had a great impact on 18th century art world through his paintings, but mostly through his philosophies as an aesthetician (a philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty and taste). He was elected the as the first president of the Royal Academy in 1768. He devoted himself to studying the great masterpieces of ancient Greco-Roman sculpture and of Italian painting.
He specialized in portrait painting and used classical references in fashionable society portraits as a way of investing a male sitter with nobility or a female sitter with an air of virtue and grace. Many of his portraits he used props to employ a pseudo-classical setting like a column and drapery, with costumes, poses and gestures to match, like his portrait of Mrs Hale shows her as Euphrosyne, one of the three Graces, in a pose reminiscent of Raphael’s Saint Margaret in the Louvre. He believes that art goes beyond merely copying nature and that all things have defects or deformities. An artist who can depict these with an abstract ideal has created something more perfect than the original. |
During his time at the Royal Academy he delivered yearly Discourses in which he gave advise to new artists, often using many of his own thoughts and aspirations about art. Ironically he himself struggled to live up to his own theories in practice.In Discourse IV he writes about The General Idea.
The General Idea
This is a presiding principal that regulates every part of art. It regards leaving out particularities and retaining simply general ideas. The general ideas extend to all parts of art, including invention, Composition, Expression, Colouring and Drapery. And when employed together, they can be referred to as Grand Style. To attain it one should be well studied in the analysis of shat constitues dignity of appearance in real life.
The General Idea in Invention
A proper subject is not invented but exists from writing or history, making them generally interesting to the public. The subject should be presented with a general air and without the fuss of minuteness and smaller details. The 'invention comes in how the artist portrays the subject grounded and with all parts equal to the whole. The artists also shouldn't get to caught up in representing the context of the subject, as this too should be left to the imagination of the spectator. The artist should deviate from strict historical truth and focus on the grandeur of his design.
The General Idea in Expression
A figure's expression should be considered in perspective to their situation and to represent that generally and in a dignified manner, or it may be considered vulgar.
The General Idea in Colouring
A quietness should reign over the canvas with no great variety of tint or displays of light. The colours should be kept uniformed and simple. Monotony allows for harmony.
The General Idea in Drapery
Again, the artist should not be overly concerned with the minute details of every fold or caught up in representing the texture of each varying fabric. The artist should be created naturally and with grace, with elegant folds that advantage the figure.
The above information was gathered from:
The Complete Works of Sir Joshua Reynolds, available here.
Reflection on General Idea
It is though Reynolds was creating a specific set of rules for what he believed to be tasteful. Taste in his opinion is something that is simplified and subdued. I think some of his ideas have merit and there is value in things being harmonious and not overly fussy, but it cannot apply to all things. For me, it also feels like his ideas are taking away my freedom to interpret and present art in my own way. On the one hand, I don think their should be principals and ideas, as that helps us to analyze art, but on the other, I also think that boundaries are meant to be crossed.
Portrait Painting
Throughout history portrait painting has had the primary role of memorializing famous or influential people, particularly during Greek and Roman times. These were of people with great influence or historical impact. This trend continued and then close to the end of the Middle Ages there was an emergence of private portraits commissioned by wealthy individuals. During the Renaissance and well into the 19th century, portraits remained a way of honoring historical figures and famous individuals, however, with the rise of wealth and status, more individuals sought portraits to show off their wealth. In the 18th and 19th centuries neo-classical artists in particular showed off the status and importance of their patrons by depicting them in fashionable clothes, with classical poses. Portraits can be done with different compositions, like, full length, half length, head only, front view, profile etc.
During the Renaissance the rise in the status of artists and painting lead to the formation of Academies where artists could study and practice. Artists who studied at the academies were trained in the area of academic art, which is to represent a subject true-to-life but in a high minded manner. The French Academy of Fine art was well known and established school. They characterized academic art as follows:
Rationality
For paintings to represent intellect, the subject matter had to be well reasoned through use of classical reference and religious/ historical allegory. This involved careful planning, sketching or the use of wax models.
Message
The painting should have a high moral message. These could be of Christian values, humanistic behavior, ideals or eternal truths.
Idealized
Artist should use idealized rather than overly realistic forms. Thus working from classical sculpture was popular.
Historical
Paintings of a historical nature should feature the accompanied historical dress
Perspective
The rules of the Renaissance theories on perspective, foreshortening and the use of chiaroscuro must be applies.
Colours
Should be represented in a naturalistic way with bright colours being used sparingly.
Surface
The canvas surface should be smooth, with no lines or brush strokes visible.
For a long time the Academies dominated the art world, imposing their conventions and rules for art. Studies had to representational and the abstract was not allowed. Students spent years simply sketching figures form sculpture and learning anatomy and geometry. Only after many years of study, observation and sketching were they allowed to start painting.
The General Idea
This is a presiding principal that regulates every part of art. It regards leaving out particularities and retaining simply general ideas. The general ideas extend to all parts of art, including invention, Composition, Expression, Colouring and Drapery. And when employed together, they can be referred to as Grand Style. To attain it one should be well studied in the analysis of shat constitues dignity of appearance in real life.
The General Idea in Invention
A proper subject is not invented but exists from writing or history, making them generally interesting to the public. The subject should be presented with a general air and without the fuss of minuteness and smaller details. The 'invention comes in how the artist portrays the subject grounded and with all parts equal to the whole. The artists also shouldn't get to caught up in representing the context of the subject, as this too should be left to the imagination of the spectator. The artist should deviate from strict historical truth and focus on the grandeur of his design.
The General Idea in Expression
A figure's expression should be considered in perspective to their situation and to represent that generally and in a dignified manner, or it may be considered vulgar.
The General Idea in Colouring
A quietness should reign over the canvas with no great variety of tint or displays of light. The colours should be kept uniformed and simple. Monotony allows for harmony.
The General Idea in Drapery
Again, the artist should not be overly concerned with the minute details of every fold or caught up in representing the texture of each varying fabric. The artist should be created naturally and with grace, with elegant folds that advantage the figure.
The above information was gathered from:
The Complete Works of Sir Joshua Reynolds, available here.
Reflection on General Idea
It is though Reynolds was creating a specific set of rules for what he believed to be tasteful. Taste in his opinion is something that is simplified and subdued. I think some of his ideas have merit and there is value in things being harmonious and not overly fussy, but it cannot apply to all things. For me, it also feels like his ideas are taking away my freedom to interpret and present art in my own way. On the one hand, I don think their should be principals and ideas, as that helps us to analyze art, but on the other, I also think that boundaries are meant to be crossed.
Portrait Painting
Throughout history portrait painting has had the primary role of memorializing famous or influential people, particularly during Greek and Roman times. These were of people with great influence or historical impact. This trend continued and then close to the end of the Middle Ages there was an emergence of private portraits commissioned by wealthy individuals. During the Renaissance and well into the 19th century, portraits remained a way of honoring historical figures and famous individuals, however, with the rise of wealth and status, more individuals sought portraits to show off their wealth. In the 18th and 19th centuries neo-classical artists in particular showed off the status and importance of their patrons by depicting them in fashionable clothes, with classical poses. Portraits can be done with different compositions, like, full length, half length, head only, front view, profile etc.
During the Renaissance the rise in the status of artists and painting lead to the formation of Academies where artists could study and practice. Artists who studied at the academies were trained in the area of academic art, which is to represent a subject true-to-life but in a high minded manner. The French Academy of Fine art was well known and established school. They characterized academic art as follows:
Rationality
For paintings to represent intellect, the subject matter had to be well reasoned through use of classical reference and religious/ historical allegory. This involved careful planning, sketching or the use of wax models.
Message
The painting should have a high moral message. These could be of Christian values, humanistic behavior, ideals or eternal truths.
Idealized
Artist should use idealized rather than overly realistic forms. Thus working from classical sculpture was popular.
Historical
Paintings of a historical nature should feature the accompanied historical dress
Perspective
The rules of the Renaissance theories on perspective, foreshortening and the use of chiaroscuro must be applies.
Colours
Should be represented in a naturalistic way with bright colours being used sparingly.
Surface
The canvas surface should be smooth, with no lines or brush strokes visible.
For a long time the Academies dominated the art world, imposing their conventions and rules for art. Studies had to representational and the abstract was not allowed. Students spent years simply sketching figures form sculpture and learning anatomy and geometry. Only after many years of study, observation and sketching were they allowed to start painting.
From the above neoclassical paintings of David, Reynolds, and Ingres we can certainly see the toned down colour palette, although Ingres has made use of sharper blues and reds in some areas. The poses have been kept graceful and classical, while the expressions are subdued. While these portraits surely represent class and taste, you can't help feeling that they lack personality and character.
Johan Zoffany
He was a German neoclassical painter who worked mostly in England and a founding member of the Royal Academy in 1768. He was a theatrical painter well known for his large scale portraits containing casts of people, like The Academicians of the Royal Academy.He depicts the life-drawing room where models are being set up in poses. The artists seem to be observing and contemplating and no one is drawing. This reflects the intellectual nature of art. The inclusion of sculptures and busts in the background give further notice to how artists would have been discussing and contemplating the Classics. In his painting Charles Townley And Friends In His Library, 1782, he once again displays the importance of studying classical sculpture. |
Portraiture remained a constant source of income for artists in England. One British painter was help in particular high regard in high society, Thomas Gainsvorough. He mostly depicted his sitters with a casual grace. Cool elegant and fashionable, something he derived from van Dyck. There is a sense of ease an naturalism to his work though sitters appear high-brow and aristocratic. |
To start my planning I actually first looked at the head shots of famous actors. I was trying to find one that has discernible features but also the correct angling.
Once I had chosen the image of Johnny Depp I looked for inspiration in other classical portraits of the 18th century. Men were mostly portrayed as stately, noble and stern, so I wanted to keep this tendency. I used a portrait by Jacques-Louis David as a model for the pose. I cropped the image to have greater focus on the face. I then worked on combining these in a sketch first straight on the canvas, to ensure I got the proportions and combinations correct.
Keeping in mind Sir Joshua Reynolds teachings of the general idea, I chose to work with a lighter palette. I softened the hair and though I was meticulous in using shadow and light to create more defined features, I also allowed myself not to get too fussy with exact details. Like his facial hair or eyelashes for example. I believe that the pose and expression does a good job at representing the actor.
I have tried to work with soft brush strokes in order for the canvas to remain smooth as the strokes should not be seen. Though I used a toned down palette, I think my colours probably still look to rich, if I compare it to some of the other portraits, this is likely because I worked with undiluted paint. If I had worked with more washes, I may have been better at creating the sort of softer dreamier edges that some of the other classical portraitists used.
I quite enjoyed the task, even though it was challenging and required much focus. It is an interesting technique and I can appreciate that it does create a Grand feel. It does make the subject feel sophisticated and noble. However, it is restricting and doesn't allow for much creative spirit. The energy that can come from broader strokes or contrasting energy is missing. The combination of more exciting methods can give a painting the opportunity to not only show the sitter's character, but also that of the painter.
Once I had chosen the image of Johnny Depp I looked for inspiration in other classical portraits of the 18th century. Men were mostly portrayed as stately, noble and stern, so I wanted to keep this tendency. I used a portrait by Jacques-Louis David as a model for the pose. I cropped the image to have greater focus on the face. I then worked on combining these in a sketch first straight on the canvas, to ensure I got the proportions and combinations correct.
Keeping in mind Sir Joshua Reynolds teachings of the general idea, I chose to work with a lighter palette. I softened the hair and though I was meticulous in using shadow and light to create more defined features, I also allowed myself not to get too fussy with exact details. Like his facial hair or eyelashes for example. I believe that the pose and expression does a good job at representing the actor.
I have tried to work with soft brush strokes in order for the canvas to remain smooth as the strokes should not be seen. Though I used a toned down palette, I think my colours probably still look to rich, if I compare it to some of the other portraits, this is likely because I worked with undiluted paint. If I had worked with more washes, I may have been better at creating the sort of softer dreamier edges that some of the other classical portraitists used.
I quite enjoyed the task, even though it was challenging and required much focus. It is an interesting technique and I can appreciate that it does create a Grand feel. It does make the subject feel sophisticated and noble. However, it is restricting and doesn't allow for much creative spirit. The energy that can come from broader strokes or contrasting energy is missing. The combination of more exciting methods can give a painting the opportunity to not only show the sitter's character, but also that of the painter.
Exercise: Experiment with landscape painting in watercolours
The growing popularity of the genre in England saw the appearance of numerous books of instruction for the landscape painter, each with their own approach. In watercolour, accurate attention to effects and the means which produce them is
vital; washes and opaque passages have their own qualities. Reflect on the properties of the medium that made it so popular for this type of work, both for artists and audiences.
Background
Watercolour painting came to Western art during the 1400's, but were mostly used as preparatory sketches. During the 15th Century, German artist Albrecht Durer illustrated the power of watercolour in his graphic and accurate depiction of animals and landscapes. While in the 17th century Flemish artist Anthony van Dyck created wonderful depictions of biblical subjects, and mythological creatures. William Reeves' invention of soluble watercolour hard cakes further propelled this medium. During the 1800's, artists from the school of English Landscape Painting raised the status of watercolours paintings and became know as the Golden Age of Watercolour Landscapes. Artists like Girtin and Turner raised the bar for landscape painting. A new Romantic Style develped with their wide range of colours, free brush work and painterly effects and textured papers making this medium popular for audiences throughout the UK. Other advantages for artists was the ease of carrying it around for plein-air painting and its quick drying properties.
vital; washes and opaque passages have their own qualities. Reflect on the properties of the medium that made it so popular for this type of work, both for artists and audiences.
Background
Watercolour painting came to Western art during the 1400's, but were mostly used as preparatory sketches. During the 15th Century, German artist Albrecht Durer illustrated the power of watercolour in his graphic and accurate depiction of animals and landscapes. While in the 17th century Flemish artist Anthony van Dyck created wonderful depictions of biblical subjects, and mythological creatures. William Reeves' invention of soluble watercolour hard cakes further propelled this medium. During the 1800's, artists from the school of English Landscape Painting raised the status of watercolours paintings and became know as the Golden Age of Watercolour Landscapes. Artists like Girtin and Turner raised the bar for landscape painting. A new Romantic Style develped with their wide range of colours, free brush work and painterly effects and textured papers making this medium popular for audiences throughout the UK. Other advantages for artists was the ease of carrying it around for plein-air painting and its quick drying properties.
Alexander Cozens
A Russian born English painter and draftsman and a leading watercolour artist. He emphasized the creative imagination of the picture as a whole. He had a fondness for creating and manipulating what he called 'blots' in an expressive way while working in a monochrome palette.
He even published an instructional manual on 'blot' painting, A New Method for Assisting the Invention in Drawing Original Compositions of Landscape, a technique which was later widely explored by the Surrealists. This unique and creative approach gave his work a poetic appeal. In Setting Son we see how working in his blotting technique has worked in building layers of depth through toned down washes. |
David Cox
A member of the Society of Painters in Water-Colours, he made a name for himself capturing the light and atmosphere of the English and Welsh countryside. He was more concerned with picturesque incident and keeping view of a principal object, like a bridge, windmill or cottage. He worked with bold colours, using a free and vigorous style.
On the right we see a view of Westminster from the south bank of the Thames, a popular spot for him. He used a combination of watercolours, pencil and scratching to create this work and has kept an earthy palette. He is not afraid to explore the vastness of the view in his composition by allowing the sky to take up much of the image. |
T H Fielding
Theodore Henry Adolphus Fielding was an English painter, author and engraver. He is well known for his work in watercolours and in particular his mastery of perspective. He was a teacher at the East India Company Military Seminary at Addiscombe and also published several books on the tools and techniques o painting..
In his book On painting in oil and water colours, for landscape and portraits (1839) he writes about the practice of painting with watercolours. Here are some of his thoughts:
In his book On painting in oil and water colours, for landscape and portraits (1839) he writes about the practice of painting with watercolours. Here are some of his thoughts:
- The advantage of watercolours is the clarity and light it provides when painting aerial perspective.
- A superior transparency, great fro creating depth in shadows.
- The best way to preserve a watercolour painting is by framing it in glass with edges well secured.
- He suggests using warmer colour firs as prepatory and then adding cooler colours for finer work, areas of light should first be left untouched.
- The foreground colours should always be painted in more vibrant warm colours with depth of contrast compared to the middleground and background. Cool colours can always be added later if needed.
- B weary f using too much water when mixing, so as to maintain a deeper colour, however you also don't want your paint to have a dry chalky appearance (This really may vary on the kind of effect you want to create)
- Drawing skills are an essential part of creating a good composition.
- Skies in landscapes should be gradiated through a series of washes and sponging.
- Don't mix too many colours and rather work in gradiations of tints.
- Mastering washes, colours and softening edges require much practice and trial and error.
- Brushes should be well washed between different colour applications as it could lead to muddy colours.
- He recommends paying attention to light and shadow. Wheter the light is natural or artificial? Where is comes from? How it reflects? The shadows they cast. How this affects the colour of an object.
Thomas Girtin
He was a pioneer in establishing watercolour paintings. He was a master of using washes to create atmospheric, poetic and emotive spaces. His work seemed to embody the works of contemporary poetry by William Wordsworth. His work had a distinct Romantic Style, which suited the way art was evolving during the 18th century. This can particularly be seen in his depiction of La Porte St. Denis, Paris. He has used earthy tones and playful light to create a warm and romantic atmosphere His landscape watercolours were welcomed as the epitome of modern art. |
Techniques
Though this is a great medium for beginners to explore and play around with, it can also take a long time to truly master this medium. Combining various techniques or tools can have different effects and these take time to explore. I will briefly mention some basic tools and techniques followed when using watercolour.
Though this is a great medium for beginners to explore and play around with, it can also take a long time to truly master this medium. Combining various techniques or tools can have different effects and these take time to explore. I will briefly mention some basic tools and techniques followed when using watercolour.
- Work with a variety of brushes, from flat to filbert
- Create a good composition sketch that is detailed, but not too dark
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I am particularly drawn to the atmospheric details in Girtin's landscapes. His urban scene of La Porte St. Denis, Paris has a sort of abstract quality to as it seems unfinished in some places. Living in a large city myself I'm also more drawn to representing city life rather than landscapes. I find the geometry and symmetry created by buildings more an exciting, so I new I wanted to create a type of cityscape or urban scene. I also quite like seeing the interaction between the harsh lines of the city and the softness of the people who live in it, so I looked for images that have people in them too. Drawing inspiration from Girtin, I tried to create atmospheric blends, so once I had places down blotches of colour I would use another wet brush to spread and blur those. I have tried not to leave any hard edges. Similarly to the other artists, I have chosen to use a simple colour palette, but just working in more intense hues. I have chosen to work in blues and yellows with some orange to intensify the sunset. These colours also create a nice contrast and mood. Like Cozens, I was drawn to an image showing luminous light, as there is something powerful in how the light casts contrasting shadows and changes the appearance of colours. I made use of masking fluid to keep some of the areas more luminous. I feel like I have managed to capture the relationship between the city, nature (sun and clouds) and the people who live in it. The use of blurry and atmospheric hues give the impression that all three these elements are united. One really has no purpose without the other.
* This painting is still not quite finished an requires finishing touches. Masking fluid still needs to be removed and I am still wondering whether I want to incorporate ink pen to give it a sketchy feeling as I have done with some of my previous watercolour portaits.
* This painting is still not quite finished an requires finishing touches. Masking fluid still needs to be removed and I am still wondering whether I want to incorporate ink pen to give it a sketchy feeling as I have done with some of my previous watercolour portaits.
During the late 18th to 19th century there were profound changes in the attitudes towards art. Paris was the center of Western art with artistic styles developing faster than before. These styles were influenced by the political, social and cultural transformations that preoccupied the 19th century. All eyes were focused on France, whose aristocracy and middle class had embraced Enlightenment and grown weary of absolutism, war and polite Christianity. Looking toward America and their establishment of a republic seemed like the perfect model for making them a more modern nation. At the end of the 18th century the people headed the French Revolution, looting, fighting and burning the street in their attempt to abolish political corruption. In 1799, Bonaparte staged a coupe and appointed himself as 'first consul', marking the end of the Revolution and the start of the Napoleonic era.
In America, the land was being tamed by the Europeans, providing them with a clean slate to build a major industrial and political power. It was a time of migration, combat, enterprise and commerce. All topics that dominated the American art scene. In England the Industrial Revolution was fueling mass consumption and economic growth, albeit at the high cost to the living quality of the workers, and a new thirst for expansion. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the world's land and one quarter of the world's population. In other parts of Europe there were also conflicts regarding the church, the aristocracy and the monarchy, with a push for new social orders.
Romanticism
Romanticism does not really define a particular artistic style, but rather an artistic philosophy and the embrace of various styles. It was a movement governed by emotion and mans ability to 'return to nature', social justice and the individuals right to express freely. " The turmoil of Romantic thought was a reflection of events in which hope and despair, enthusiasm and apathy alternated as man searched on for the freedom initiated by the Enlightenment" (Copplestone, 1983:288). In politics, the Romantics aspired for individual rights and liberty. In art it meant following passion and emotion as the Romantics no longer judged art by a set of rules, but rather by inner reflection ans sensibility. "Whereas the Neoclassical artists had striven after a style of impersonal clarity for the expression of universally relevant and eternally valid truths, the Romantics sought to express only their own feelings, beliefs, hopes and fears in all their myriad of forms" (WHA, 640). Lithography also became a popular publishing technique, It is a process of creating drawings on stone with greasy chalk and it typifies the spontaneous fluency of the Romantic Movement.
In America, the land was being tamed by the Europeans, providing them with a clean slate to build a major industrial and political power. It was a time of migration, combat, enterprise and commerce. All topics that dominated the American art scene. In England the Industrial Revolution was fueling mass consumption and economic growth, albeit at the high cost to the living quality of the workers, and a new thirst for expansion. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the world's land and one quarter of the world's population. In other parts of Europe there were also conflicts regarding the church, the aristocracy and the monarchy, with a push for new social orders.
Romanticism
Romanticism does not really define a particular artistic style, but rather an artistic philosophy and the embrace of various styles. It was a movement governed by emotion and mans ability to 'return to nature', social justice and the individuals right to express freely. " The turmoil of Romantic thought was a reflection of events in which hope and despair, enthusiasm and apathy alternated as man searched on for the freedom initiated by the Enlightenment" (Copplestone, 1983:288). In politics, the Romantics aspired for individual rights and liberty. In art it meant following passion and emotion as the Romantics no longer judged art by a set of rules, but rather by inner reflection ans sensibility. "Whereas the Neoclassical artists had striven after a style of impersonal clarity for the expression of universally relevant and eternally valid truths, the Romantics sought to express only their own feelings, beliefs, hopes and fears in all their myriad of forms" (WHA, 640). Lithography also became a popular publishing technique, It is a process of creating drawings on stone with greasy chalk and it typifies the spontaneous fluency of the Romantic Movement.
Marie Guillemine Leroulx de la Ville
Better known as Marie-Guillemine Benoist, she was a French painter and student of Jacques-Louis David. Her Portrait of a Black Woman has a great sensuality and was groundbreaking, firstly in representing a non-European and secondly in its erotic nature. Bare chest were normal used in mythological pieces and seldom in posed portraits. Marie was concerned with the rights and treatment of woman as well as slavery. Her passion for this cause is shown in her sensitive handling of the sitter along with the warmth in which she is presented. As with many artists during the 19th century she used the canvas to highlight social issues. |
Antoine-Jean Gros
Another student of Jaques-Louis David, and probably his most successful student. Concerned with representing the aspirations of the empire and celebrating the glory of Napoleon, as is evident in Napoleon in the Plague House of Jaffa. He has used a grand style and allegory to depict the significance of this moment. He has depicted Napoleon as the ultimate rules, one with almost divine like gesture and touch. He handling of colour and rich strokes show the emotional intensity with which he backs the regime and serves as propaganda. This was the springboard for a freer more emotional style. |
Francisco de Goya
A Spanish artists, considered one of the greatest and most prolific artists of the 19th century. His work embodied the characteristics of the Romantic movement, combining subjectivity, imagination, and emotion and was the creator of a new type of modern history painting. His works started as light hearted but later grew to be pessimistic and dark. "Goya was an astute observer of the world around him, and his art responded directly to the tumultuous events of his day, from the liberations of the Enlightenment, to the suppressions of the Inquisition, to the horrors of war following the Napoleonic invasion" (The Art Story, 2017).
A Spanish artists, considered one of the greatest and most prolific artists of the 19th century. His work embodied the characteristics of the Romantic movement, combining subjectivity, imagination, and emotion and was the creator of a new type of modern history painting. His works started as light hearted but later grew to be pessimistic and dark. "Goya was an astute observer of the world around him, and his art responded directly to the tumultuous events of his day, from the liberations of the Enlightenment, to the suppressions of the Inquisition, to the horrors of war following the Napoleonic invasion" (The Art Story, 2017).
The painting shows French Soldiers shooting innocent civilians after in uprising against the French army of occupation. Goya hated injustice and he is directing the viewer's attention to the victims, showing you their faces to connect you with them sympathetically. The twisted bodies in the foreground point out the gruesomeness of Napoleon's thirst for power. It is a chilling image of referred to as the first modern painting.
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This is one of 14 'black paintings' that Goya created o the walls of his home. He was 70 at the time and had suffered an unknown illness that left him deaf. The image is haunting and provokes the viewer to the of the finality of life. The figure on the left has grimace on his face and an expression that may allude to insanity. The figure on the right appears almost skeletal and lifeless. He used broad and free brush strokes and incorporated a palette knife. Their is a clear plan to how each stroke has the potential to enhance the expression of these two men. It certainly shows a shift in the interpretation of subjects.
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Théodore Géricault
This French painter worked with a dramatic and flamboyant style. He was skilled in capturing the energy of moving figures, which is seen in The Raft of Medusa. On the raft are the survivors of a French shipwreck. The survivors are being decimated by the sun, sea and starvation. It was a controversial portrayal of of a French captain who abandoned his lower ranking crew to save himself and his officers. As with Goya, he is placing the focus on the victims. There is a passionate and realistic virtuosity to the composition. |
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres
This French painter was well known for his ability to combine traditional techniques and sensuality. He experimented with abstract figures and emotionally complex subjects. His depiction of serpentine lines, curved forms and refined lines can be seen well in Turkish Bath. The colours create a warm and inviting atmosphere while the classical poses draw in the imagination of the viewer. His portraits were also popular as he depicted sitters with a timeless quality and fashionable decor. His rendering of texture was particularly captivating as evidenced in his portraits of Princesse Albert de Broglie, Comtesse d'Haussonville and his Self Portrait in 1804. By the mid 19th century, he became the guardian of Classical tradition. |
Eugène Delacroix
A French painter who was concerned with painting large history paintings in the grand manner. He was a great colourist, working in rich colours in a style applied with dynamic energy, sweeping strokes and dramatic splashes. Clearly evident in his depiction of the massacre of king Nineveh and his retinue in Death of Sardanapalus. His style is far removed from the calm, noble and simple Neoclassical style, instead he has created spacial relationships that are ambiguous, distorted perspective and anatomy and daring colour combinations. This painting is like a manifesto to the Romantic belief that the painter is both the creator and destroyer of art and life. |
Liberty Leading the People has become a symbol of the revolution of July 1830. It is one of the most iconic images ever created of a revolution. It is idealized, vivid and disturbing. Liberty leads her troops with face turned, the revolution flag in hand, making her way through life-sized corpses. She is represented as an allegorical goddess-figure and a woman of the people. The painting was rejected by contemporaries and hidden from the art world until 1861. Since then it has gone on to inspire many other works, including the Statue of Liberty, the novel novel Les Misérables and George Antheil's Symphony No. 6, to name but a few.
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Romanticism and Philosophy
"Romanticism is a philosophical movement during the Age of Enlightenment which emphasizes emotional self-awareness as a necessary per-condition to improving society and bettering the human condition (Philosophy Basics, 2017). It was largely centered in Germany which is why most of the painters were much more closer associated with the German poets and philosophers than those of France. It stood in opposition to the preceding schools of Rationalism and Empiricism of the preceding Age of Reason. It moved from the objective to the subjective, representing a freedom of expression which greatly affected the Arts.
"Romanticism is a philosophical movement during the Age of Enlightenment which emphasizes emotional self-awareness as a necessary per-condition to improving society and bettering the human condition (Philosophy Basics, 2017). It was largely centered in Germany which is why most of the painters were much more closer associated with the German poets and philosophers than those of France. It stood in opposition to the preceding schools of Rationalism and Empiricism of the preceding Age of Reason. It moved from the objective to the subjective, representing a freedom of expression which greatly affected the Arts.
Caspar David Friedrich
This German painter 'sought to paint thoughts and emotions which could not be put into words' (WHA: 651) and in doing so to the Genre of landscape paintings to new heights. His moody landscapes transports the viewer into the wilds of nature, which for his has great spiritual significance, a contemplation of God's magnificence and presence in the world. In the Wanderer Above the Mist he has created a rare viewpoint that elevates the viewer. There is an intimacy and mystery about the figure and the landscape he looks out on. The figure is alienated and standing on the edge of reality, a poetic representation of Friedrich's own grappling with faith and the natural order. His work was not well received by critics, as many didn't understand his allegorical representations of God in nature. Even so, his paintings went on to become a great proponent in Modern Art. |
William Blake
He was a great English mystic, poet and painter. Though he accepted much of the Enlightenment, he felt that there were still unanswered questions. He worked in combination of the Neoclassical and Romantic Movement, combining the seriousness, universality and purity of the former with the imagination and freedom of the latter. He was constantly agonizing about how to reconcile imagination and understanding. Often working with engraving and prints he was commissioned to produce paintings depicting the books of the Bible. The Great Red Dragon is one painting in a set of 4 created from the book of revelations. He has combined ink, graphite and watercolour to illustrate the cosmic battle between good and evil. The dragon represents Satan trying to snatch a woman's unborn child. She is identified by the church as the Virgin Mary. The 'apocalyptic' writings in Revelation surely resonated with Blake, as he observed the transformations of the Revolutions unfolding around him. |
Romantic Landscape Painting
John Constable
He was obssessed with portraying the beauty of the English Landscape. Where before the Neoclassical landscape was a backdrop for mythical and historical events, he made the landscape the focal point. He had a great ability for capturing natural light and movement which can be seen in his depiction of Stour Valley and Dedham Church. His paintings represent a vision of his childhood, highlighting a sense of harmony and innocence in the way he sees nature. It is intricate, reflective and poetic. |
Joseph, Mallord William Turner
This English painter was sublime in his expressionistic interpretations of light, colour and atmosphere. His paintings are passionately extravagant with an aim of documenting a landscape in it's variety of forms. In The Slave Ship he has created a unique and impulsive depiction of the horrors of the slave trade. The ship is seen in the distance with desperate human forms scattered in the volatile sea. This atrocity and aggression is shown through his colour choices, which don't represent a realistic depiction of the ocean, but that rather and emotional and symbolic proclamation of the horrific act. Many artists of the time were enrolled in the abolishment of the slave trade, like Johann Moritz Rugendas and Francois Biard. |
Slavery remained legal in England until 1834, in France until 1848 and in the USA until 1865. Artists played a strong role in creating an awareness of this disturbing trade and the particular atrocities committed at sea. It was a combination of humanitarian demands and political pressure that finally lead to the abolishment of the slave trade.
Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot
In France the transformation of Romantic landscapes took a slower course than in Germany and England. One French artist that was a proponent of the genre finally meeting an even more transcendental spontaneity and freedom was, Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot. The emotional authenticity in depicting an uncorrupted nature inspired a cult following which later inspired may impressionists. the French Academy at this time had given an academic respect to the the landscape genre, although they still persisted in a close study of nature, know as etudes. Only once you truly understood the form of nature, could you move on to creating imaginative compositions of it. Corot focused on the subtleties of tone rather than hard lines and depictions, seen in The Bridge of Augustus Over the Nera by his use of free and loaded brush strokes. |
Architecture and the Romantic Movement
In architecture there was also a demand for representing the new ideals of the 19th century. This still posed a problem, as architects were dependent on patrons and the freedom movement in painting was harder to translate in building. Following a decline in the 'Empire Style' that was promoted by Napoleon, there was definitely a need for a new architecture, thus, during the course of the 19th century there were several revivals in style, including Classical (Greek and Roman), Italian Renaissance and Gothic. With Gothic being a particular favorite around Europe and England. A good example is the Houses of Parliament in London, built by Sir Charles Barry and Augustus W.N. Pugin. For Pugin the revival of Gothic architecture was like a revival of faith. He was a great proponent for the revival of Gothic architecture. In England, France and Germany architects felt that it represented a 'national genius' and 'patriotic feeling' (Janson & Cauman, 1982: 301).
In architecture there was also a demand for representing the new ideals of the 19th century. This still posed a problem, as architects were dependent on patrons and the freedom movement in painting was harder to translate in building. Following a decline in the 'Empire Style' that was promoted by Napoleon, there was definitely a need for a new architecture, thus, during the course of the 19th century there were several revivals in style, including Classical (Greek and Roman), Italian Renaissance and Gothic. With Gothic being a particular favorite around Europe and England. A good example is the Houses of Parliament in London, built by Sir Charles Barry and Augustus W.N. Pugin. For Pugin the revival of Gothic architecture was like a revival of faith. He was a great proponent for the revival of Gothic architecture. In England, France and Germany architects felt that it represented a 'national genius' and 'patriotic feeling' (Janson & Cauman, 1982: 301).
By the middle of the 19th century baroque also returned to favor. The Opera in Paris, designed by Charles Garnier, really sums up Romantic architecture with its Neo-Baroque fusion. It is a great reflection of the money and power of those leading the industrial revolution. It is a vulgar display of luxury with a plenitude of columns, sculpture and ornament.
New materials and techniques also affected the architectural style, the most important of which being the use of iron, specifically as support columns and arches, as seen in the Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève. |
Historicism
Historicism is the idea of finding meaning and significance in historical periods in a specific social context, like time, place and location. It holds that these social contexts have an 'organic succession of developments', which can be studied (Mastin, 2008). There are different branches and influincers in the filed of Historicism, most notably Georg Hegel, Karl Marx and Charles Darwin. Hegel developed a dialectical scheme with which to synthesize the events of history. Marx believed that society was in a constant struggle of classes and he was a great proponent for socialism, or Marxism. Darwin was a naturalist who through his studies of natural history came up with his theory of evolution. The study of history also effected the arts, as painters began to depict glimpses of times passed. This is evident in the work of Ingres, who captured an Historical tableaux of the imagined life of Raphael and Leonardo through exquisite still-lifes.
Historicism is the idea of finding meaning and significance in historical periods in a specific social context, like time, place and location. It holds that these social contexts have an 'organic succession of developments', which can be studied (Mastin, 2008). There are different branches and influincers in the filed of Historicism, most notably Georg Hegel, Karl Marx and Charles Darwin. Hegel developed a dialectical scheme with which to synthesize the events of history. Marx believed that society was in a constant struggle of classes and he was a great proponent for socialism, or Marxism. Darwin was a naturalist who through his studies of natural history came up with his theory of evolution. The study of history also effected the arts, as painters began to depict glimpses of times passed. This is evident in the work of Ingres, who captured an Historical tableaux of the imagined life of Raphael and Leonardo through exquisite still-lifes.
The Pre-Raphaelites
In 1827-1910 there was a group of artists who founded the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood with the aim of returning to nature and rouncing academic practices. The group consisted of William Homan Hunt, John Everett Millias and Dante Gabriel Rosetti among others.
In 1827-1910 there was a group of artists who founded the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood with the aim of returning to nature and rouncing academic practices. The group consisted of William Homan Hunt, John Everett Millias and Dante Gabriel Rosetti among others.
William Holman Hunt
This prominent British artist was known for his use of brilliant colour, great detail and symbolic realism. He became concerned with expressing Christian ideals, which are evident in his works, The Scapegoat and Our English Coasts. The scene is a wonderfully created plein air view of the Sussex coastel landscape depicted in bright colours and sun kissed forms. Though it is actually symbolic of the vulnerablitly of the English church, it is mostly regarded at a oure landscape depiction. |
John Everett Millais
This English painter became on of the most famous exponents of the Pre-Raphaelite style with his depiction of Christ in the House of His Parents. The painting was received with much controvercy due to the all-to-realistic depiction of the carpenters workroom filled with dirt. Previously religious subjects were depicted in classical garb, in clean and poised condition. He later developed a new powerful from of realism and moved away from the Brotherhood. |
Dante Gabriel Rossetti
"Rossetti expanded the Brotherhood’s aims by linking poetry, painting, and social idealism and by interpreting the term Pre-Raphaelite as synonymous with a romanticized medieval past (Bryson & Gaunt, 1998) The Girlhood of Mary is a depiction of the young Virgin Mary working on embroidery while guided by her mother, while her father is shown trimming vines in the background. The painting is rife with symbolism; the palm branch and thorns allude to the crucifixion, the lillies imply purity and the books are a symbol of faith, hope and wisdom. Though he received much criticism for his technique, his ability to use the imagination as a form of sensory story telling was apparent, even more so in his poetry, like The Blessed Damozel, published in 1850. |
Realism
The Realism Movement began around 1840 and is recognized as the first from of modern art. Realists rejected the traditional norms of art, choosing to represent the revolutions and social changes that marked this time period. This meant moving towards depictions of real every day life. They also abandoned may transitional techniques like perspective and anatomy. This often lead to an 'ugly' portrayal of the life and events around them. The Realists' motto, 'one must be of one's own time', sprung from a Romantic idea. It encouraged artists to select unpictueresque and unconventional subject matter. This was also confirmed in the writings of Russian born Nikolai Chernyshevskii, an essay entitled The Aesthetic Relation of Art to Reality. He writes that art should reflect current and social moral problems, not only in subject matter but also in technique.
The Realism Movement began around 1840 and is recognized as the first from of modern art. Realists rejected the traditional norms of art, choosing to represent the revolutions and social changes that marked this time period. This meant moving towards depictions of real every day life. They also abandoned may transitional techniques like perspective and anatomy. This often lead to an 'ugly' portrayal of the life and events around them. The Realists' motto, 'one must be of one's own time', sprung from a Romantic idea. It encouraged artists to select unpictueresque and unconventional subject matter. This was also confirmed in the writings of Russian born Nikolai Chernyshevskii, an essay entitled The Aesthetic Relation of Art to Reality. He writes that art should reflect current and social moral problems, not only in subject matter but also in technique.
Gustave Courbet
This great French painter was central to the Realism Movement. He rejected the Academies traditional style and insisted on capturing what he observed in its full and blemished reality. He was concerned with much of the social events of his times and used his work to highlight those that are overlooked, like his fellow country folk. He often depicted events that would be considered minor in the realms of history and depicted them as grand historical moments, like in A Burial at Ornans. His method of applying paint thickly and in broken flecks and slabs, were stylistic innovations later admired and promoted by modernist painters.
This great French painter was central to the Realism Movement. He rejected the Academies traditional style and insisted on capturing what he observed in its full and blemished reality. He was concerned with much of the social events of his times and used his work to highlight those that are overlooked, like his fellow country folk. He often depicted events that would be considered minor in the realms of history and depicted them as grand historical moments, like in A Burial at Ornans. His method of applying paint thickly and in broken flecks and slabs, were stylistic innovations later admired and promoted by modernist painters.
The Stonebearers are clearing a road that is being built. They are depicted in warn and tattered clothing. He has set them in isolation, symbolic of being economically and physically trapped.
Jean-François Millet
This French portrait painter was greatly occupied with capturing the lives of those without possessions. He often painting peasants in the midst of hard labour as he viewed this as true virtue and godliness. His work was often viewed as controversial or serving a socialist agenda. For Millet it was more about giving a voice to more than half of the French population who were not yet reaping the benefits of financial prosperity. His use of Naturalism and non romaticized subjects paved the way for later Modern painters and photographers.
In The Angelus, he depicts a man and woman pausing during the church bells to pray. He affords them with a quiet dignity, despite the dirt on their clothes, by presenting them as central to the subject and with sculptural like poses. Both ideas that were previously used for religious subjects. The sky appears to be faiding to dusk, but their toil still continues. In many of his paintings there appears to be a looming darkness that the subjects cannot escape. Though these paintings were shocking or controversial at the time, they are now veiled as nostalgia.
This French portrait painter was greatly occupied with capturing the lives of those without possessions. He often painting peasants in the midst of hard labour as he viewed this as true virtue and godliness. His work was often viewed as controversial or serving a socialist agenda. For Millet it was more about giving a voice to more than half of the French population who were not yet reaping the benefits of financial prosperity. His use of Naturalism and non romaticized subjects paved the way for later Modern painters and photographers.
In The Angelus, he depicts a man and woman pausing during the church bells to pray. He affords them with a quiet dignity, despite the dirt on their clothes, by presenting them as central to the subject and with sculptural like poses. Both ideas that were previously used for religious subjects. The sky appears to be faiding to dusk, but their toil still continues. In many of his paintings there appears to be a looming darkness that the subjects cannot escape. Though these paintings were shocking or controversial at the time, they are now veiled as nostalgia.
Edouard Manet
French poet and renowned art critic, Chalres Baudelaire called for an artist who would take account of the transformation of 19th century society and modern life. Manet answered this call by producing many striking images of modern urban life. It is his combination of old and new that gave him a unique voice. Using techniques or conventions from the old master and injecting the new ideas of realism and naturalism with a fine balance. The Execution of the Emperor Maximilian was first banned for its depiction of the Mexican Emperor being executed by Mexican nationalists dresses in French uniforms. This makes Maximilian appear as a victim of the imperial regime, which Manet, a convinced socialist, hated. |
The painting represents the way in which Manet redefined the Romantic notion. Not through a sole focus on emotion or sympathy, but on artistic honesty and suited the notion of the Realists, 'one must be of one's own time'. It encouraged artists to select unpictueresque and unconventional subject matter.
Adolph von Menzel
This German painter was a true example of capturing the life and times around him. Particularly drawn by the industrial revolution, he managed to capture his subjects with impeccable detail and energy. His fine attention to light changes in atmosphere and unconventional framing of subjects set his work apart and sparked many of the ideas later followed by the Impressionists. This is evident in hi depiction of the Iron Rolling-Mill. His focus is on the workers in this volatile environment. |
The USA
In America, painters were very much concerned with the realist idea of painting around their own time and circumstances. This meant favoring still lifes and landscapes. With America having grand and untouched scenery, it made it the ideal subject for artists. Thomas Cole, and English born American painter, lead the landscape genre through his foundation of the Hudson River School. He was particularly adept at capturing the wilderness of America, through his bold use of colour and chiaroscuro. |
Albert Bierstadt
He is an American painter who studied in Europe and brought with him tremendous technical skill. He joined Frederick W. Lander's survey party bound for the Rocky Mountains, which is when he captured the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California. Many fell in love with his ability to capture the parts of the land that were previously unseen. His paintings have a great sense of atmosphere and evokes a feeling of serene meditation through his detailed handling of atmospheric light. |
George Caleb Bingam
This American painter and politician is well known for his portraits, landscapes and depictions of Mid Western life, in particular Missouri. Many of his great works are depictions of the rough and lively life on the Missoury river, like, The Jolly Flatboatmen and Fur Trades Decending the Missouri. In his painting Indian Figure - The Concealed Enemy, we see a Native American armed and waiting. Even though the depiction of the figure would already be outdated by the time he finished, it answered a call to representing the qualities that make America unique. It highlights the on going difficult relationship between the large companies that came in to take over the fur trade and drive the Native Americans out of Kansas. |
Another social issue facing America was the plight of the African Americans ho had been freed from slavery when it was officially abolished in 1865. During the following decades African Americans were more frequently included in genre scenes. They were, however, often depicted in jovial scenes, dancing and grinning, which perpetuated the myth of a stable social structure, when really this continued to be a central issue in America up to the African American civil rights movement of the 1950s and ’60s. Two artists concerned with highlighting the life of African Americans were Homer and Tanner.
Winslow Homer
This expressive American artists is best known for his paintings of marine subjects. The late 19th century saw a rise of paintings depicting African Americans at carnival time, often shown as mindless, jolly and condescending. But Homer's is deeply nuanced and captures and almost tragic preparation for the African-American festival known in the South as Jonkonnu. |
Henry Ossawa Tanner
Tanner was partly of African American descent and himself endured persecutions by white gang youths. He wanted to depict the seriousness of the lives of African Americans, representing scenes in a touching and empathetic way. Art historian Judith Wilson said that he had the great ability to, “invest their ordinary, underprivileged, Black subjects with a degree of dignity and self-possession that seems extraordinary for the times in which they were painted" (Wilson, 1992). The First Lesson and The Thankful Poor are two of his greatest examples of this. |
Photography
Before the invention of the camera there was the camera obscura, basically a dark room with a lens in one hole that projects the outside view onto the opposite wall. Many artists made use of some form of it, like Vermeer and Canaletto. Nicéphore Niépce, a Frenchman concerned with lithography succeeded in fixing images from camera obscura to metal and glass plates, between 1822-26. Though the result was not brilliant, the potential of it was noticed by Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre. In 1837 he experimented with a technique later labelled daguerreotype in which he was able to record a scene on a copper coated plate with silver. Meanwhile in England 1837, Fox Talbot experimented with a technique in which the camera recorded a negative image that again had to be exposed in order to transfer it to sensitized paper to create a positive print. The advantage of these negatives is that multiple prints could be made or even transferred to lithographs. Meanwhile the daguerreotype method was growing in success, especially in America for the use of portraits. They were seen as an alternative to paintings and still considered the relationship between artist and sitter.
From the beginning the relationship between painting and photography was complex and many questioned the medium as a form of artistic expression. For the Romantics however it met their desires to capture visual appearance, but others questioned whether one could see or feel the artist's touch. Others realized how it could be a shortcut to art, providing the opportunity to capture detailed images without the intense training in life drawing and perspective.
Before the invention of the camera there was the camera obscura, basically a dark room with a lens in one hole that projects the outside view onto the opposite wall. Many artists made use of some form of it, like Vermeer and Canaletto. Nicéphore Niépce, a Frenchman concerned with lithography succeeded in fixing images from camera obscura to metal and glass plates, between 1822-26. Though the result was not brilliant, the potential of it was noticed by Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre. In 1837 he experimented with a technique later labelled daguerreotype in which he was able to record a scene on a copper coated plate with silver. Meanwhile in England 1837, Fox Talbot experimented with a technique in which the camera recorded a negative image that again had to be exposed in order to transfer it to sensitized paper to create a positive print. The advantage of these negatives is that multiple prints could be made or even transferred to lithographs. Meanwhile the daguerreotype method was growing in success, especially in America for the use of portraits. They were seen as an alternative to paintings and still considered the relationship between artist and sitter.
From the beginning the relationship between painting and photography was complex and many questioned the medium as a form of artistic expression. For the Romantics however it met their desires to capture visual appearance, but others questioned whether one could see or feel the artist's touch. Others realized how it could be a shortcut to art, providing the opportunity to capture detailed images without the intense training in life drawing and perspective.
The subject of photography as art was one of great contention. During a lawsuit in Paris, a judge ruled that photography required though, spirit, taste and intelligence thus qualifying as art. They were still, however excluded from the salons and exhibited separately.
Gaspard-Félix Tournachon
Aka Nadar, greatly supported the notion of photography as art and played a great role in elevating its status. He first became interested in photography as a tool to assist in his drawings. He was particularly fascinated with portraits and the manner in which light captures the character of a sitter. He contested that the photographer's ability to capture this is what set them apart as artists. He was primarily a caricaturist, which is likely what gave him the innate ability to capture the physical features of his sitters in a way that shows depth of character. |
Photographs were also considered an important tool for capturing and recording moments of truth and reflections of the real world. This became all to clear during the American Civil War, where photographers captured the gruesome scenes of soldiers strewn across the fields, as can be seen in A Harvest of Death, Battlefield of Gettysburg. The low angle chosen by O'Sullivan highlights the magnitude of the devastation. |
Photographs soon became an aid in painting. Thomas Eakins, an American Realist painter, was one of the first to embrace photography as a tool in painting, arranging to have studio models posed and photographed. Others followed suit, particularly naturalistic painters, who were able to use photographs as a means of capturing fleeting moments and details that are often missed by the human eye.
Eadweard Muybridge
He was a pioneer in the study of photography in motion. His work was a precursor for cinema. He did several studies on the movements of animals and the human figure, which impacted not only science, but also art. His nude figures were particularly of interest. As with painting, photography allowed viewers to 'travel' to destinations that they may never get to venture to. To capture and immortalize moments and people, to celebrate mans ability to create, destroy and feel. |
During the 19th Century there were many political developments in Europe, as the different nations had a growing interest in establishing new national identities, leading to this century being known as the century of revolutions. The greatest impacts being the French Revolution and Napoleon, the political after effects of this as well as the Industrial Revolution ,1789–1845. And from 1849-1914, the fuller impact of an industrial society including new forms of states and of diplomatic and military alignments.
France was the main focus of activity during these 'revolutions, though by no means exclusive. These events played a great role in in creating a new artistic climate, Realism, one that challenged the previously accepted conventions of Classicism and Romanticism. Realists were no longer interested in facades, but rather in truth and accuracy (Copplestone, 1983). The Salons however still played a great role in controlling the art during this time. They favored only conventional Classical approaches and styles. As the Salons were the only form of public exhibition and ways for artist to gain recognition it create a divide among those who wanted to play safe an maintain their recognition, and those who were willing to push boundaries with new realistic and experimental ways, like Courbet and Manet. In revolt, a small group of artists, notably Impressionists established the Salon des Refuses in 1863 for those works rejected by the Salon. Much of the public was outraged by these exhibitions as they could not understand the loose handling and broken patches of the Impressionists work. At one of the Impressionist exhibitions in Paris, 1876, one critic described the participants as, "five or six lunatics, one of which is a woman" (The Art Story)
The Impressionist movement is characterized by a fascination with light, individual and visible brush strokes, and unrefined surface, the reflection and movement of light, particularly water, a diversity of combinations in colour hues. They looked at a fleeting moment and tried to capture these changes in nature as they eye would experience them. The archetypal Impressionist painting is a landscape our out door subject painted in plein air. It does not rely on tonal contrasts but on small touches of vibrant colour. Most Impressionist artists typically conveyed middle-class visions of care-free happiness. These also included urban night life and the vitality of street cafes, bars and cabarets. The Impressionist Movement brought importance to the materials of paint and how they formed part of the content of a painting.
France was the main focus of activity during these 'revolutions, though by no means exclusive. These events played a great role in in creating a new artistic climate, Realism, one that challenged the previously accepted conventions of Classicism and Romanticism. Realists were no longer interested in facades, but rather in truth and accuracy (Copplestone, 1983). The Salons however still played a great role in controlling the art during this time. They favored only conventional Classical approaches and styles. As the Salons were the only form of public exhibition and ways for artist to gain recognition it create a divide among those who wanted to play safe an maintain their recognition, and those who were willing to push boundaries with new realistic and experimental ways, like Courbet and Manet. In revolt, a small group of artists, notably Impressionists established the Salon des Refuses in 1863 for those works rejected by the Salon. Much of the public was outraged by these exhibitions as they could not understand the loose handling and broken patches of the Impressionists work. At one of the Impressionist exhibitions in Paris, 1876, one critic described the participants as, "five or six lunatics, one of which is a woman" (The Art Story)
The Impressionist movement is characterized by a fascination with light, individual and visible brush strokes, and unrefined surface, the reflection and movement of light, particularly water, a diversity of combinations in colour hues. They looked at a fleeting moment and tried to capture these changes in nature as they eye would experience them. The archetypal Impressionist painting is a landscape our out door subject painted in plein air. It does not rely on tonal contrasts but on small touches of vibrant colour. Most Impressionist artists typically conveyed middle-class visions of care-free happiness. These also included urban night life and the vitality of street cafes, bars and cabarets. The Impressionist Movement brought importance to the materials of paint and how they formed part of the content of a painting.
Claude Monet
He was the leader of the French Impressionist Movement. His painting Impression - Sunrise is what gave the movement its name. It is a great example of how Monet contructed a composition through his use of colour. He was concerned with creating atmosphere and working with the fleeting sensations caused by light. He perceived the world in splashes of colour and light and in this painting he uses washes of colour to show the reflections of light in the sky and water. It creates a kind of blurred haze which is representative of the Industrial Revolution. He often created his compositions from a higher viewpoint and as times his atmospheric shapes made the composition feel like it had a lack of depth. |
It was Monet's conviction that he was challenge the way we see, and how all moments are fleeting perceptions. He became ever more concerned with the decorative qualities of color and form. He worked on creating a series of images on the same subject during different times of the day. Below is a series of Haystack paintings showing these different impressions of light and colour.
Berthe Morisot
As a female artist Morisot was barred from painting some subjects available to her male counterparts. Even so she was still considered an innovator of the Impressionist movement, covering a wide varied of subject matter. He style was fresh and spontaneous. In View of Paris from the Trocadero we see her casual approach to composition and fluid brushwork. Her subjects were always of a personal nature and later often included her favorite model, her daughter. |
Eduard Manet
He produced many striking images of modern urban life. It is his combination of old and new that gave him a unique voice. Using techniques or conventions from the old master and injecting the new ideas of realism and naturalism with a fine balance. However it was Manet's refusal of convention and his ability to challenge three-dimensional perspective that inspired the artists that followed to explore the unconventional. His painting A Bar at the Folies-Bergere became one of his most evocative works. There is a combination of artificial and natural, illusion and reality, making this a great 'modern' image. |
They viewer is not only captivated by the barmaid, but by a peek into what is in the reflection of the mirror behind her. Her expression and empty stare may also refer to the loneliness of city life.
Pierre-Auguste Renoir
This French Impressionist painter was more concerned with the human figure then Monet, best know for creating scenes of bustling Parisian modernity and leisure. He has a keen eye for capturing colour and movement as can be seen in Luncheon of the Boating Party. He beautifully captures the vibrations of light as it reflects from varying textured surfaces, the softer human skin, they refined glass, the white cloth and the surrounding water. He reasserted the importance of composition and structure and his work became a great influence on Fauvism and Cubism. |
Edgar Degas
He preferred not to be labelled as an impressionist as he felt he had his own individual style. Unlike the others, he was not obsessed with landscapes, but rather urban life. He was still concerned with light and movement, but still captured his subjects with a great Realsim. He loved modern life and aimed to capture both the illusion and reality it had to offer. Particularly intrigued bu the human figure, he created several oil and pastel paintings of female dancers and singers, often in unusual positions. He wanted to capture the realism of this difficult and tiring profession. The woman are depicted strong, disciplined and engaged in their craft, with muscles bulging and fatigue showing. He said he depicted honest woman who were not over involved in their physical condition.
He preferred not to be labelled as an impressionist as he felt he had his own individual style. Unlike the others, he was not obsessed with landscapes, but rather urban life. He was still concerned with light and movement, but still captured his subjects with a great Realsim. He loved modern life and aimed to capture both the illusion and reality it had to offer. Particularly intrigued bu the human figure, he created several oil and pastel paintings of female dancers and singers, often in unusual positions. He wanted to capture the realism of this difficult and tiring profession. The woman are depicted strong, disciplined and engaged in their craft, with muscles bulging and fatigue showing. He said he depicted honest woman who were not over involved in their physical condition.
Japonisme
In earlier centuries Western painter were unlikely to embrace and learn from non-Western art, but this changed in the late 19th century, as their was a successive wave of discovery of alien cultures, first of which was Japanese. Many of the Impressionists were influenced by Japanese Prints, which were a combination of bold linear designs. They had a sense which made them quite different from traditional Western art and its perspective view of the world. Their influence helped artists to further break the spell of Classical tradition. Prints were of of vulgar subject matter and used bold colours and unorthodox viewpoints. It had a particularly influence on Degas, who says it helped him to see form. It also affected artists like Monet on viewpoint.The concern with reconciling three-dimensional illusions with a flat painted surface is where Japanese art had its greatest influence, particularly when looking at works by Mary Cassat, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Gauguin.
In earlier centuries Western painter were unlikely to embrace and learn from non-Western art, but this changed in the late 19th century, as their was a successive wave of discovery of alien cultures, first of which was Japanese. Many of the Impressionists were influenced by Japanese Prints, which were a combination of bold linear designs. They had a sense which made them quite different from traditional Western art and its perspective view of the world. Their influence helped artists to further break the spell of Classical tradition. Prints were of of vulgar subject matter and used bold colours and unorthodox viewpoints. It had a particularly influence on Degas, who says it helped him to see form. It also affected artists like Monet on viewpoint.The concern with reconciling three-dimensional illusions with a flat painted surface is where Japanese art had its greatest influence, particularly when looking at works by Mary Cassat, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Gauguin.
Cassat was an American artist who exhibited with the Impressionists in Paris from 1879 onward. Influenced by Japanese woodblock prints, she created this image of a woman doing her hair.
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Lautrec created graphic posters that represented Paris nightlife. Here we see how Japanese art has influenced the compositions as he combines patterns, pictorial elements and lettering.
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Gaguin enthusiastically collected Japanese prints and use them along with other non European works as inspiration in his own work. The combat seen in The Vision After the Sermon is similar to the Japanese Manga. He has used dark contours, brilliant colour and their are no cast shadows which leaves the space feeling flat.
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Neo-Impressionism
Around 1880 artists were reacting against Impressionism, and it faced a crisis. They felt that the fleeting nature in which work was capture created limitations. 'Monet, Pissarro and Renoir began to feel that their art had serious shortcomings, not least of which was a lack of solidity, permanence and emotional commitment' (Copplestone, 1983: 311). However Renoir would argue that it allowed for a freedom to create on any subject, without dictation on what to paint. Regardless, artists wanted, once again, for art to be more 'meaningful'. Another delima they were faced with was a lack of greater official recognition, as shows were met with little financial success.
Divisionism or Pointillism
In this technique, small strokes or dots of colour are placed next to each and form an image when viewed from a distance. It is mostly associated with its inventor George Seurat and his student Paul Signac. Seurat Called it chromo-luminarism.
Around 1880 artists were reacting against Impressionism, and it faced a crisis. They felt that the fleeting nature in which work was capture created limitations. 'Monet, Pissarro and Renoir began to feel that their art had serious shortcomings, not least of which was a lack of solidity, permanence and emotional commitment' (Copplestone, 1983: 311). However Renoir would argue that it allowed for a freedom to create on any subject, without dictation on what to paint. Regardless, artists wanted, once again, for art to be more 'meaningful'. Another delima they were faced with was a lack of greater official recognition, as shows were met with little financial success.
Divisionism or Pointillism
In this technique, small strokes or dots of colour are placed next to each and form an image when viewed from a distance. It is mostly associated with its inventor George Seurat and his student Paul Signac. Seurat Called it chromo-luminarism.
Georges Seurat
He generally painted scenes of modern urban life with a focus on the working class. Looking at The Bathers we can see how Seurat has brought back a sense of timeless universality. He used a serious of quick sketches and created the composition in studio, using his painstaking technique. This slow and precise work allowed him to focus on the impact colours make on each other, as well as how the depiction of light and colour affect structure and form. He managed to restore a sense of logic and discipline that may have been lacking in Impressionism. |
Socialism also had a great influence on Neo-impressionist artists like Signac, Pissaro and Henri Edmond Cross. Though today their works would simply seem carefree or lyrical, at the turn of the 19th century they were seen as propaganda, highlighting the great social struggle between the workers and capital.
Angello Morbelli
This Italian artist also supported socialis ideas and highlighted the plight of peasants in his painting For Fifty Cents. It was immediately recognized as showing the appalling conditions in which these female peasants worked in the rice fields. He has used a divisionist approach by offsetting his predominant greens with purple by using a three-pointed brush system, interactively woven together. |
Symbolism
This was a movement that turned to imagination and fantasy, by suggesting ideas through symbols, shapes, forms and colours. Artists made use of abstract means to represent psychological truths, putting it at the forefront of modernism. Artists made use of feelings, ideas and personal experiences to express truth in an often more nuanced and suggestive way. It began as a literary movement that celebrated the use of imagination as an important form of creativity, greatly inspired by the French poets Stephane Mallarme, Paul Verlaine and Arthur Rimbaud (Becket, 1994)
Consider works by Emile Bernard, Gustav Klimt and James Ensor.
This was a movement that turned to imagination and fantasy, by suggesting ideas through symbols, shapes, forms and colours. Artists made use of abstract means to represent psychological truths, putting it at the forefront of modernism. Artists made use of feelings, ideas and personal experiences to express truth in an often more nuanced and suggestive way. It began as a literary movement that celebrated the use of imagination as an important form of creativity, greatly inspired by the French poets Stephane Mallarme, Paul Verlaine and Arthur Rimbaud (Becket, 1994)
Consider works by Emile Bernard, Gustav Klimt and James Ensor.
Paul Gauguin
Though this French artist was schooled in Impressionism, he broke away from the movement to pursue his own expressions. He liked experimenting with colour theories and decorative approaches to painting. He travelled regularly to the south Pacific, "where he developed a new style that married everyday observation with mystical symbolism, a style strongly influenced by the popular, so-called "primitive" arts of Africa, Asia, and French Polynesia" (The Art Story). Innocence vs. Knowledge and Savage vs. Civilized became central themes of his work. Looking at his paintings Spirit of the Dead Watching and Where do we come from?, Who are we?, Where are we going?, we feel the intimate connection he found in the Polynisian culture. The compositions are rhythmic and poetic, combined with a sense of imagination and local folklore. The latter representing an allegory of human life from infancy to old age.
Though this French artist was schooled in Impressionism, he broke away from the movement to pursue his own expressions. He liked experimenting with colour theories and decorative approaches to painting. He travelled regularly to the south Pacific, "where he developed a new style that married everyday observation with mystical symbolism, a style strongly influenced by the popular, so-called "primitive" arts of Africa, Asia, and French Polynesia" (The Art Story). Innocence vs. Knowledge and Savage vs. Civilized became central themes of his work. Looking at his paintings Spirit of the Dead Watching and Where do we come from?, Who are we?, Where are we going?, we feel the intimate connection he found in the Polynisian culture. The compositions are rhythmic and poetic, combined with a sense of imagination and local folklore. The latter representing an allegory of human life from infancy to old age.
Van Gogh
Although previously discussed under Impressionists, his works became ever more personal. He used his paintings as a form of spiritual redemption and giving his life purpose. The Night Cafe's disharmony of red, green and yellow represent the anxieties and insability which was threatening to engulf van Gogh. He was also trying to find a simpler life, like Gauguin, where the terrible passions of humanity wouldn't ruin him. His forms and brushwork transmit his agitation and the strokes create an almost hallucinatory feel. |
Allegory
Allegorical paintings were widely used throughout history to covey deeper moral or spiritual meanings such as life, death, love, virtue, justice etc. What makes Allegory different from Symbolism, is that an allegorical painting has to be deciphered by the viewer and are often only intelligible to those who have insight to the cultural context. During the 19th century it had widely fell out of favour, but for a few artist using it to test he ambiguity with which a viewer would interpret their works. Artists like Walton Ford and Kara Walker and Edvard Munch.
Allegorical paintings were widely used throughout history to covey deeper moral or spiritual meanings such as life, death, love, virtue, justice etc. What makes Allegory different from Symbolism, is that an allegorical painting has to be deciphered by the viewer and are often only intelligible to those who have insight to the cultural context. During the 19th century it had widely fell out of favour, but for a few artist using it to test he ambiguity with which a viewer would interpret their works. Artists like Walton Ford and Kara Walker and Edvard Munch.
Edvard Munch
This Norwegian painter and print maker was a pioneer in the German impressionist movement. His work was highly symbolic and psychological. Probably one of his most famous images is The Scream. The iconic depiction of a figure overwrought by fear and shock has been parodied in many forms, only adding to its notoriety. Much called this image a study of one self, in other words a look inwards. The expressiveness of the figure is also matched in the expression of his surroundings. The landscape appears to be reflecting his emotional response, through winding and convulsing curves and contrasting, swooping colours. Munch has created a symbiotic state between man and his surroundings and it is almost as though ones shapes the other and vice versa. As a viewer you feel like you are almost looking into a dream, or nightmare. The landscape appears to be part of the man's mind, while the boardwalk appears to be set in reality. |
Art Nouveau
Art Nouveau was a movement in the decorative arts and architecture throughout Europe during the turn of the 19th century. Its aim was to modernize design, drawing inspiration from organic and geometric forms, particularly flowers. It was a revival in craftsmanship and design. The Academies placed a high importance on Painting and Sculpture, which meant that craft work was considered a lower form of creative expression. The Art Nouveau movement sought to change this by creating their own style, one that is not just an imitation of styles that came before. It resulted in pieces that were shaped organically and with a sense of freedom. For example, looking at the Tassel House, we see the curved shapes that resemble vines not only in the design of the stairs but also echoed in the decoration of the tiles and walls. A more radical example is the Casa Mila, with its asymmetrical and jagged planes creating an organic interplay between the interior and exterior.
Art Nouveau was a movement in the decorative arts and architecture throughout Europe during the turn of the 19th century. Its aim was to modernize design, drawing inspiration from organic and geometric forms, particularly flowers. It was a revival in craftsmanship and design. The Academies placed a high importance on Painting and Sculpture, which meant that craft work was considered a lower form of creative expression. The Art Nouveau movement sought to change this by creating their own style, one that is not just an imitation of styles that came before. It resulted in pieces that were shaped organically and with a sense of freedom. For example, looking at the Tassel House, we see the curved shapes that resemble vines not only in the design of the stairs but also echoed in the decoration of the tiles and walls. A more radical example is the Casa Mila, with its asymmetrical and jagged planes creating an organic interplay between the interior and exterior.
In painting, artists like Gauguin and Lautrec also experimented with Art Nouveau in their use of expressive lines. This movement really was the stepping stone to modern art and letting go of the past. Architects and artists alike approached their designs with a new sense of freedom. In America, the introduction of metal and steel as a building material saw structures reaching new hights, as skyscrapers started filling the skylines. Its greatest imapact was the ability to prefabricate building parts, which lead to mass production and faster building times. One architect who truly developed the combination of stone and iron for structural and decorative purposes is Baron Victor Horta, a Belgium architect.
It became a popular feature in this Age of Iron to leave the metalwork exposed and celebrated, like the Eiffel Tower or the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris.
The elaborate style of Art Nouveau in Europe was greatly influenced by the works of English artists exhibited there, like Aubrey Beardsley and paintings by the Pre-Raphaelites (Copplestone, 1983)
Domestic Architecture
On both sides of the Atlantic the middle class had a new need for small detached homes that were designed to the individual's special requirements. Generally these designs represented an escape for the 'city workers', a form of rural bliss.
Post Industrial Revolution
Many cities were still reeling from the political, social, cultural and economic changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution. Though it was a time of great technological growth and advancements, it also represented a huge gap in wealth and power, which left many nostalgic for simpler times, in particular the Impressionists.
Artists turned to religion, mysticism and new transcendentalism in order to escape the bourgeois life, that was bent on materials and capitalist interests (Selz, 1981).
It became a popular feature in this Age of Iron to leave the metalwork exposed and celebrated, like the Eiffel Tower or the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris.
The elaborate style of Art Nouveau in Europe was greatly influenced by the works of English artists exhibited there, like Aubrey Beardsley and paintings by the Pre-Raphaelites (Copplestone, 1983)
Domestic Architecture
On both sides of the Atlantic the middle class had a new need for small detached homes that were designed to the individual's special requirements. Generally these designs represented an escape for the 'city workers', a form of rural bliss.
Post Industrial Revolution
Many cities were still reeling from the political, social, cultural and economic changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution. Though it was a time of great technological growth and advancements, it also represented a huge gap in wealth and power, which left many nostalgic for simpler times, in particular the Impressionists.
Artists turned to religion, mysticism and new transcendentalism in order to escape the bourgeois life, that was bent on materials and capitalist interests (Selz, 1981).
Paul Cézanne
Paul Cézanne is credited with paving the way for modern art. As a Post-Impressionist, he was at the forefront of taking some of the Impressionist ideals and combining them with meaning and meditation. He sought to return art as a sculptural or structural representation, where each part is integral to the whole. He had a unique method of combining colour in distinct tonal various to create form.
Paul Cézanne is credited with paving the way for modern art. As a Post-Impressionist, he was at the forefront of taking some of the Impressionist ideals and combining them with meaning and meditation. He sought to return art as a sculptural or structural representation, where each part is integral to the whole. He had a unique method of combining colour in distinct tonal various to create form.
He completed a series of 5 paintings depicting peasants playing cards. Other artists created similar scenes with drama and bafoonary, but Cezanne chose show a muted depiction, a type of 'human still life'. We see how line and colour work together to create a simple yet harmonious composition.
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He created several paintings of Monte Sainte Victoire from various angles. We can see how the use of lines and colours to depict form here would have been a great inspiration to the Cubists. There is a great sense of geometry to his layout, as well as his depiction of space. Perspective is present, but not obvious in the traditional sense.
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Exercise: Collect some 19th-century images of everyday life
Collect some images of rural life by Realist and Impressionist artists and some images of the city by Impressionist and Post- Impressionist painters.
- Think about the extent to which the rural works present stereotypical figures and what the urban images tell you about everyday life. Reflect on how close the artists were to the rural and urban scenes they depicted.
- Look at their depiction of landscape and think about whether they represent scenes of the countryside as a working or a holiday environment.
- Think about how the reproduction of such images on calendars and souvenirs has influenced the way in which we respond to them.
- Think about the extent to which the rural works present stereotypical figures and what the urban images tell you about everyday life. Reflect on how close the artists were to the rural and urban scenes they depicted.
- Look at their depiction of landscape and think about whether they represent scenes of the countryside as a working or a holiday environment.
- Think about how the reproduction of such images on calendars and souvenirs has influenced the way in which we respond to them.
Realists
The Realism Movement began around 1840 and is recognized as the first from of modern art. Realists rejected the traditional norms of art, choosing to represent the revolutions and social changes that marked this time period. This meant moving towards depictions of real every day life. They also abandoned may transitional techniques like perspective and anatomy. This often lead to an 'ugly' portrayal of the life and events around them.
The Realism Movement began around 1840 and is recognized as the first from of modern art. Realists rejected the traditional norms of art, choosing to represent the revolutions and social changes that marked this time period. This meant moving towards depictions of real every day life. They also abandoned may transitional techniques like perspective and anatomy. This often lead to an 'ugly' portrayal of the life and events around them.
Gustave Courbet
A great French painter central to the Realism Movement. His method of applying paint thickly and in broken flecks and slabs, were stylistic innovations later admired and promoted by modernist painters.He rejected the Academies traditional style and insisted on capturing what he observed in its full and blemished reality. He was concerned with social events and those that are overlooked, like his fellow country folk. He often depicted minor events as grand historical moments, like in A Burial at Ornans. The focus in this image is truly on the people and the event. The landscape merely serves as a backdrop. The artist clearly has a emotive response to the people as he has taken time to show each facial expression and response. As a viewer you can sense the admiration and respect for this community who has lost someone dear and is taking the time to honor them. There is a sense of closeness in this community and that the burden of this loss is carried by all of them. The colour palette further adds to the somber feeling. He is showing that all life is precious and deserves to be honored. This is also reflected in the great representation of church men in their robes, sashes and scepters.
A great French painter central to the Realism Movement. His method of applying paint thickly and in broken flecks and slabs, were stylistic innovations later admired and promoted by modernist painters.He rejected the Academies traditional style and insisted on capturing what he observed in its full and blemished reality. He was concerned with social events and those that are overlooked, like his fellow country folk. He often depicted minor events as grand historical moments, like in A Burial at Ornans. The focus in this image is truly on the people and the event. The landscape merely serves as a backdrop. The artist clearly has a emotive response to the people as he has taken time to show each facial expression and response. As a viewer you can sense the admiration and respect for this community who has lost someone dear and is taking the time to honor them. There is a sense of closeness in this community and that the burden of this loss is carried by all of them. The colour palette further adds to the somber feeling. He is showing that all life is precious and deserves to be honored. This is also reflected in the great representation of church men in their robes, sashes and scepters.
Jean-François Millet
This French portrait painter was greatly occupied with capturing the lives of those without possessions, often painting peasants in the midst of hard labour as he viewed this as true virtue and godliness. For Millet it was more about giving a voice to the less wealthy working class which made up more than half of the French population who were not yet reaping the benefits of financial prosperity. In The Gleaners we see three woman harvesting. They are hunched and working low, showing the intensity of this kind of labour. He painted with a very Naturalistic style, not over-dramatizing or romanticizing his subjects. He meerly aimed to tell the truth about these countrymen. Many interpreted his work as having a socialist agenda, but as a viewer today looking at it, you simply experience a glimpse of what a day was like for these harvesters. The figures are still the main subject and focal point in the image, however the landscape certainly forms part of the narrative. His use of perspective and the buildings in the background give you a sense of how vast the land is that they have to clear, again providing you with an insight to how grueling their day might be. The colour palette is almost monochrome with mostly dull and dusty colours, which also highlights the nature of the work. Similarly to Courbet, there is a sense of deep respect for his subjects.
This French portrait painter was greatly occupied with capturing the lives of those without possessions, often painting peasants in the midst of hard labour as he viewed this as true virtue and godliness. For Millet it was more about giving a voice to the less wealthy working class which made up more than half of the French population who were not yet reaping the benefits of financial prosperity. In The Gleaners we see three woman harvesting. They are hunched and working low, showing the intensity of this kind of labour. He painted with a very Naturalistic style, not over-dramatizing or romanticizing his subjects. He meerly aimed to tell the truth about these countrymen. Many interpreted his work as having a socialist agenda, but as a viewer today looking at it, you simply experience a glimpse of what a day was like for these harvesters. The figures are still the main subject and focal point in the image, however the landscape certainly forms part of the narrative. His use of perspective and the buildings in the background give you a sense of how vast the land is that they have to clear, again providing you with an insight to how grueling their day might be. The colour palette is almost monochrome with mostly dull and dusty colours, which also highlights the nature of the work. Similarly to Courbet, there is a sense of deep respect for his subjects.
Eduard Manet
He produced many striking images of modern urban life. It is his combination of old and new that gave him a unique voice. Using techniques or conventions from the old master and injecting the new ideas of realism and naturalism with a fine balance. Luncheon on the Grass is a great example of combining the old with the new. We have the classical female nude with curved figures and romanticized features, alongside two gentlemen conversing in a park setting while fully dressed. This contrast alone confused The Salon at the time. What was Manet trying to say about the relationship between the 4 figures? The men appear to be almost ignoring the female , while the female seems to be posing or modelling for the viewer, while the female in the background hardly seems to be part of the luncheon at all. the food, landscape and setting seems very much staged, which as a viewer also makes you question its purpose. Manet often used sets and models to create his work which may explain the lack of depth, inconsistent lighting and posy-ness of the figures. As a viewer it reminds me of a more modern magazine add, likely selling some cream or beauty product that makes you feel comfortable in your own skin. However it was Manet's refusal of convention and his ability to challenge three-dimensional perspective that inspired the artists that followed to explore the unconventional. In contrast to Courbet and Millet, Manet's subjects were wealthier and able to explore more of the pleasures in life. Here the landscape serves as a playground. The subjects have food, conversation and time, luxuries the labouring countrymen would not have had.
He produced many striking images of modern urban life. It is his combination of old and new that gave him a unique voice. Using techniques or conventions from the old master and injecting the new ideas of realism and naturalism with a fine balance. Luncheon on the Grass is a great example of combining the old with the new. We have the classical female nude with curved figures and romanticized features, alongside two gentlemen conversing in a park setting while fully dressed. This contrast alone confused The Salon at the time. What was Manet trying to say about the relationship between the 4 figures? The men appear to be almost ignoring the female , while the female seems to be posing or modelling for the viewer, while the female in the background hardly seems to be part of the luncheon at all. the food, landscape and setting seems very much staged, which as a viewer also makes you question its purpose. Manet often used sets and models to create his work which may explain the lack of depth, inconsistent lighting and posy-ness of the figures. As a viewer it reminds me of a more modern magazine add, likely selling some cream or beauty product that makes you feel comfortable in your own skin. However it was Manet's refusal of convention and his ability to challenge three-dimensional perspective that inspired the artists that followed to explore the unconventional. In contrast to Courbet and Millet, Manet's subjects were wealthier and able to explore more of the pleasures in life. Here the landscape serves as a playground. The subjects have food, conversation and time, luxuries the labouring countrymen would not have had.
Jules Breton
This French Painter was heavily influenced by the French countryside and used traditional methods to capture its beauty, often with almost idyllic vision. Growing up in the countryside he had a great admiration for the landscape as well as the peasants who served it. He is particularly drawn to how the sun interacts with the land, which can be seen in his works The End of the Work Day and The Song of the Lark. What is interesting about his depictions of the peasant and the landscape compared to Millet and Courbet, is the sense of hope that you get from his work. There is off course still a great respect for those working the land, but his figures appear to feel as though their work is rewarding. The woman in The Song of the Lark is depicted with a great Realism and Naturalism, as she walks the land barefoot. As a viewer I don't feel that this is to show her poverty, but rather her connection to the earth. She appears to be taking in the sky and her surroundings as this sun sets in a great radiant ball of red. His landscape is presented vast and with colour, a nod at how her labours are serving the land. |
Impressionists
Impressionism was a modern art movement that began in 1860. It was a collection of artist who rejected the conservatism of the French Academies and their 'salon' exhibitions. Their goal was to capture the momentary and sensory effect of a scene, as a result many of them were plein air painters. Like the Realists they abandoned traditional techniques and explored increasingly loose brush strokes and intense colours with an almost distorted impression of form. Their work was often criticized as looking unfinished. Science and the study of how the eye perceives had a great impact on this movement as artists tried to capture optical an lighting effects.
Impressionism was a modern art movement that began in 1860. It was a collection of artist who rejected the conservatism of the French Academies and their 'salon' exhibitions. Their goal was to capture the momentary and sensory effect of a scene, as a result many of them were plein air painters. Like the Realists they abandoned traditional techniques and explored increasingly loose brush strokes and intense colours with an almost distorted impression of form. Their work was often criticized as looking unfinished. Science and the study of how the eye perceives had a great impact on this movement as artists tried to capture optical an lighting effects.
Gustave Caillebotte
Though his work falls more under the spectrum of Realism, he was a great supporter of Impressionist art. It was also his choice of subject matter and highlighting every day life that sets his work apart. He was particularity fascinating by how the ever modernizing urban environment had the ability to alienate individuals. In Paris Street, Rainy Day he has put an emphasis on how individuals seem caught up in the city life. The concern about what to wear, how to behave and getting from A-B without even making eye contact. The landscape is presented with great depth and perspective. The detail in the architecture, lines and colouring shows that he does respect mans ability to create a great urban landscape, it is likely more the effect of that landscape on the people that concerned him. Having grown up in the city myself I can appreciate how people may get caught up and forget to take in their surroundings, but as an overall image, I still feel a sense of romanticism and nostalgia, perhaps that is just because of the depiction of the rain, which I associate with calm, serenity and growth. Thus my impression of his paintings is likely different from his intention.
Though his work falls more under the spectrum of Realism, he was a great supporter of Impressionist art. It was also his choice of subject matter and highlighting every day life that sets his work apart. He was particularity fascinating by how the ever modernizing urban environment had the ability to alienate individuals. In Paris Street, Rainy Day he has put an emphasis on how individuals seem caught up in the city life. The concern about what to wear, how to behave and getting from A-B without even making eye contact. The landscape is presented with great depth and perspective. The detail in the architecture, lines and colouring shows that he does respect mans ability to create a great urban landscape, it is likely more the effect of that landscape on the people that concerned him. Having grown up in the city myself I can appreciate how people may get caught up and forget to take in their surroundings, but as an overall image, I still feel a sense of romanticism and nostalgia, perhaps that is just because of the depiction of the rain, which I associate with calm, serenity and growth. Thus my impression of his paintings is likely different from his intention.
Claude Monet
His plein air technique of applying the brush quickly with emphasis on light and atmosphere became the hallmarks of Impressionism. In Vetheuil in the Fog we can see his captivation with light, particularly in the reflections on the water, where is fast short brush strokes really makes the water fells as though it is actual flickering. The image has movement and as a viewer your captured in the moment, the exact moment in fact that he was experiencing while painting it, so it is almost like stepping into his shoes. Colours are still quite realistic, although very vivid. This is a type of landscape that is to be enjoyed. You can imagine yourself along the river banks, taking in the sun, watching boats row by as you much on a sandwich. His technique makes the landscape feel alive, moving and ever changing, as it would be.
His plein air technique of applying the brush quickly with emphasis on light and atmosphere became the hallmarks of Impressionism. In Vetheuil in the Fog we can see his captivation with light, particularly in the reflections on the water, where is fast short brush strokes really makes the water fells as though it is actual flickering. The image has movement and as a viewer your captured in the moment, the exact moment in fact that he was experiencing while painting it, so it is almost like stepping into his shoes. Colours are still quite realistic, although very vivid. This is a type of landscape that is to be enjoyed. You can imagine yourself along the river banks, taking in the sun, watching boats row by as you much on a sandwich. His technique makes the landscape feel alive, moving and ever changing, as it would be.
Edgar Degas
Degas was a French Impressionist painter, printmaker and sculptor. He often employed photography in his creative process and is well known for his paintings and drawings of ballet dancers during rehearsal and performances. His painting L'Absinthe is a particualry different and interesting portrait. These individuals are depicting in an what appears to be a bar setting. Their expressions convey disconnect and dismay. You get the sense that they have nowhere better to be. Like Caillebotte he is trying to convey how city live has lead to boredom and discontent. Even though the individuals are sharing a table, they don't appear to be sharing anything else, though together, they appear lonely. He has used thick rough strokes with some bold colours, also reflecting the heaviness of their burden. Though the image depicts an interior, he has used the outside landscape as the inspiration for what is weighing them down. |
Post Impressionists
Post impressionism is a response to the opticality of Impressionism. It encompasses a wide range of artistic styles, but its central idea is that it represents the artist's subjective vision. Painting now longer just represented a glimpse of the world, but also of the artists soul. Paintings became highly symbolic and emotional.
Post impressionism is a response to the opticality of Impressionism. It encompasses a wide range of artistic styles, but its central idea is that it represents the artist's subjective vision. Painting now longer just represented a glimpse of the world, but also of the artists soul. Paintings became highly symbolic and emotional.
Vincent van Gogh
This Dutch painter was experimental and spontaneous. He was great at understanding colour theory and created his own distinctive style of painterly rhythms and swirling forms. In this Portrait of Doctor Gachet he has created a more emotional impression of the sitter rather than a naturalistic one. He is giving the viewer an insight into the man's soul and using his rhythmic patterns to evoke an emotive response rather than an intellectual one. Their is a closeness in how he has composed the painting and the complimenting colours further add to the feeling of melancholy surrounding the sitter. Though he was not appreciated during his own time, van Gogh's paintings are now among some of the most famous and expensive. They are often used advertising, decoration and lately even a film was produced. I believe this has only heightened people's appreciation of his work. |
Edvard Munch
This Norwegian painter and print maker was a pioneer in the German impressionist movement. His work was highly symbolic and psychological. Probably one of his most famous images is The Scream. The iconic depiction of a figure overwrought by fear and shock has been parodied in many forms, only adding to its notoriety. Much called this image a study of one self, in other words a look inwards. The expressiveness of the figure is also matched in the expression of his surroundings. The landscape appears to be reflecting his emotional response, through winding and convulsing curves and contrasting, swooping colours. Munch has created a symbiotic state between man and his surroundings and it is almost as though ones shapes the other and vice versa. As a viewer you feel like you are almost looking into a dream, or nightmare. The landscape appears to be part of the man's mind, while the boardwalk appears to be set in reality. |
Henri Rousseau
Henri Rousseau was a French self-taught painter. He painted with a characteristic flat figurative style, often creating surreal and dream-like scenes in primitive or natural settings.
In The Dream he has taken the traditional subject of the the female nude and interpreted in his unique style. the female reclines, curiously on a couch in the jungle. She appears to be captivated by her tropical and exotic surroundings. He explained that she is really on her couch in Paris, merely dreaming of the jungle. He has used vibrant colours and a flat plain to further enhance the dreamlike feel. Ironically Rousseau had never been to a jungle and created his landscapes from imagination. It was his way of escaping the modernized lifestyle. As he is the creator of the landscape, the rules of reality and naturalism need not apply. He is clearly showing that those stuck in the urban jungle would rather dream about being in the actual jungle.
Henri Rousseau was a French self-taught painter. He painted with a characteristic flat figurative style, often creating surreal and dream-like scenes in primitive or natural settings.
In The Dream he has taken the traditional subject of the the female nude and interpreted in his unique style. the female reclines, curiously on a couch in the jungle. She appears to be captivated by her tropical and exotic surroundings. He explained that she is really on her couch in Paris, merely dreaming of the jungle. He has used vibrant colours and a flat plain to further enhance the dreamlike feel. Ironically Rousseau had never been to a jungle and created his landscapes from imagination. It was his way of escaping the modernized lifestyle. As he is the creator of the landscape, the rules of reality and naturalism need not apply. He is clearly showing that those stuck in the urban jungle would rather dream about being in the actual jungle.
Exercise: Still life in the 18th and 19th centuries
In the 17th century still life made use of allegory. In the next century symbolic meanings became less important. In France the Academies still had a great influence on works, pushing more noble and traditional agendas, though there were many artists who began to revolt against these traditions and techniques. Art that represented day-today life was not commonplace during this time. The still life was seen as a form of practice, for artist to hone their techniques and build their skill, not as it's own excepted genre. However, when Jean-Siméon Chardin was excepted to the Academy, he made great strides in highlighting this genre as one of importance. These were not without moral overtones, however, conveying a sense of order and rectitude in a harmonious world. Either try your hand at drawing or painting a still life, or reflect in your learning log on how artists’ writings have helped you to understand their work.
Gustave Courbet
As mentioned before, he rejected the Academies teaching of idealism and focussed on representing subjects realistically, with blemishes and all. Looking at Still Life with Apples and Pomegranate can still see that there is a very traditional approach to his composition. Objects have been staged with a specific light source creating interest. He has stuck true to his realism, in showing the gritty surroundings (He was in prison while painting this) as well as the state of the kitchen ware. The shapes of the apples also aren't glamoured and there bumpy exteriors give them a rustic feel. He used a broad and summary technique to capture the subject, and they have been kept as the focal point of the composition. |
Paul Cézanne
He was a French post-impressionist painter who paived the way for the modern painting movement. His paintings related one object to another through rhyming shapes and colours within his overall composition. He looked at items as sculptural and considered their make-up and material. This gave his work an architectural and analytical feel, viewing objects in terms of cylinders, spheres and cones, making a great impact on Cubism. We can see his manipulation of space and objects in Table, Napkin and Fruit. The fruit appears to be on the flat wooden surface, but alos as though floating at the same time. He doesn't draw you into the scene, but rather around the canvas, almost as though the surface is flat and 3 dimensional at the same time. |
Vincent Van Gogh
He used bold colours and shapes to alter the visual appearances of things for emotive or expressive effect. His celebrated pictures of sunflowers lack the meticulous accuracy of a botanical illustration but have all the intensity of a passionate response to nature. Similarly to Cézanne the subject appears flat and 3 dimensional at the same time. However, as a viewer, the emotional response definitely is stronger to the Basket and Six Oranges, which was van Gogh's goal. His fast strokes and soft edges make the fruit feel alive, while his sharp and contrasting colours make the fruit inviting. Though he has made use of lighting contrasts, these are subtle and even toned, also providing a sense of harmony between each element on the canvas. |
Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin
Many of the still lifes created by Chardin was in decoration of homes and shops, like decorative fireplaces and spaces above mantle pieces or doors. Similarly to the Dutch Masters he focused on using everyday items, like kitchen ware or flowers and creating softly lit snapshots of domestic life, ordinary objects of a middle-class household, often in the kitchen or the store room rather than on display. The clarity and realism in his work was exemplary. He aimed to evoke pleasure in looking at his scenes. The objects he chose did not really have a symbolic meaning, but they were rather chosen for their interesting shapes or textures. For him it was about creating harmony on the canvas. The simplicity and luminosity of the work simply allows the viewer to appreciate the geometry and balance used to create them. Even though there is a crisp realism to his work, it is also not too fussy with details, a delicate balance that makes him a master still life painter.
Many of the still lifes created by Chardin was in decoration of homes and shops, like decorative fireplaces and spaces above mantle pieces or doors. Similarly to the Dutch Masters he focused on using everyday items, like kitchen ware or flowers and creating softly lit snapshots of domestic life, ordinary objects of a middle-class household, often in the kitchen or the store room rather than on display. The clarity and realism in his work was exemplary. He aimed to evoke pleasure in looking at his scenes. The objects he chose did not really have a symbolic meaning, but they were rather chosen for their interesting shapes or textures. For him it was about creating harmony on the canvas. The simplicity and luminosity of the work simply allows the viewer to appreciate the geometry and balance used to create them. Even though there is a crisp realism to his work, it is also not too fussy with details, a delicate balance that makes him a master still life painter.
Reflection
When it comes to still life, I generally feel like they tend to be a bit staged. Off course they need to be in order to create something of visual interest. I admire artists like Chardin who can create such a crisp realistic image, which we would now call photo-realistic art. And while I appreciate the technique and skill hat would go into their work, I don't necessarily find it as appealing as the works by van Gogh and Courbet. This is because I am an emotional viewer, so looking at works that affect me emotionally are more appealing. I think you would have to make use a more stylistic and expressive approach, like van Gogh to create that emotional response.
When it comes to still life, I generally feel like they tend to be a bit staged. Off course they need to be in order to create something of visual interest. I admire artists like Chardin who can create such a crisp realistic image, which we would now call photo-realistic art. And while I appreciate the technique and skill hat would go into their work, I don't necessarily find it as appealing as the works by van Gogh and Courbet. This is because I am an emotional viewer, so looking at works that affect me emotionally are more appealing. I think you would have to make use a more stylistic and expressive approach, like van Gogh to create that emotional response.
I have taken a bit more inspiration from the work of Impressionist and post-Impressionist artists like Degas, van Gogh and Monet to create my composition. From the Impressionists I took the idea of breaking with tradition and not just representing a the classic bowl of fruit or flowers. Still life is not my go-to genre, but the ones that usually grab my attention are ones that play on light and reflection. Monet was also intrigued by water and it's ability to change according to the atmosphere and I think that using wine is an interesting exploration of this. Like Degas I wanted to capture my subject in an unusual angle. The image is cropped and angled from a higher viewpoint making it trickier to interpret as it feels like they all blend together. Like van Gogh I have kept to a simple and contrasting colour palette. Although yellow and red aren't quite complimentary, they do provide a warm contrast. I have also worked with think colours and brush strokes as he did, trying not to blend to much of the colours so they stand on their own. I enjoyed painting this with the idea of looser lines, as it takes away the pressure of being perfect or overly bogged down by details.
* This painting is still unfinished as the last layer is till waiting to dry. Additional highlights and shadows still need to be added as the next layer.
* This painting is still unfinished as the last layer is till waiting to dry. Additional highlights and shadows still need to be added as the next layer.
Exhibition visit
I was very fortunate that Christie's was having an aution in Hong Kong and as such all pieces were open for public view. There are view opprtunities like this in Hong Kong and the public were allowed remarkably close. There were 1000s of items on display, but I have uploaded some of my favorites. It was quite a surreal experience to stare at the work of Rembrandt and El Greco as their works date back so far. It is amazing to think what they achieved with the materials they had. I particularly liked get up close to the work of van Gogh and Monet, as you always read about their ability to create texture and impressions, but seeing it for yourself is quite different.
Probably on of my favorite pieces of the day is Head of Man, 1959, by Francis Bacon. This is a very different take on a portrait and the use of colours and strokes give a very emotional feel to the piece. I like how bold and free he is with the brush, almost as if he lets his tools guide him. As an artist this is a kind of style I would like to explore and experiment with further.
Probably on of my favorite pieces of the day is Head of Man, 1959, by Francis Bacon. This is a very different take on a portrait and the use of colours and strokes give a very emotional feel to the piece. I like how bold and free he is with the brush, almost as if he lets his tools guide him. As an artist this is a kind of style I would like to explore and experiment with further.
Visit an eighteenth-century neoclassical house
Here you can view my report on the US Capitol Building here.